
FERGUSON AND LEWIS 

ELEMENTARY 

PRINCIPLES 

OF AGRICULTURE 




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ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF 
AGRICULTURE 



"Nature Study is learning those things in nature 
which are best worth knowing, to the end of doing 
those things that make hfe most worth living." 

— Hodge. 

Old-time common sense and the close, analytical 
thought of modern times teach that the elementary 
school should assist both boys and girls, according to 
their needs, to fit themselves, practically as well as 
intellectually, for the work of life. 




OUR BIRD FRIENDS 

What do they eat? See Figs. 119 and 120. 
Red Bird or Sinai (mafe and female,, Bullock's Oriole, Scssor Taded 
Fly Catcher, and Meadow Lark. 



ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES 
OF AGRICULTURE 



A TEXT BOOK 
FOR THE COMMON SCHOOLS 



A. M. FERGUSON, M.Sc. 

PROPRIETOR Ferguson's seed-breeding farms 
AND 

L. L. LEWIS, M.Sc, D.V.M. 

PRCFESSOR veterinary science, a. and M. college of OKLAHOMA 



FOURTH EDITION 



FERGUSON PUBLISHING COMPANY 

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, and SHERMAN, TEXAS 



\ A 13 



Copyright, June, 1908 
Copyright, May, 1913 
By a. M. FERGUSON 



First Edition, June, 1908 
Second Revised Edition, January, 1909 

Reprinted, May and August, 1909 

Reprinted, March and September, 1910 

Third Revised Edition, April, 1911 

Fourth Revised Edition, May, 1913 

Reprinted, May, 1913 



©CI,A:H77i>6 



PREFACE TO FOURTH EDITION 

It is true that, "Civilization begins and ends with the 
plow," as we were told by Alexander the Great. It is also 
true that, the progress of nations (heretofore and here- 
after) may be measilred by the degree of intelligence that 
directs the use of their plows. It is no new doctrine that 
intelligence aids industry. It is, however, a comparative- 
ly new application for the schools to aid Agriculture, 
which is the fundamental support of all civilization. 
Agriculture is the most backward element in American 
life to-day, and our schools are meeting a plain duty in 
correcting the mistakes of the past. 

Agriculture is now established as a grammar grade 
subject, not only as a vocational study for communities 
that are essentially agricultural, but also as a cultural 
study for all children who live in a nation whose industries 
and traditions are so closely related to Agriculture as our 
own. We study language for its utility in exchanging 
ideas with our fellows; we study history and civics for 
guidance in the discharge of our social relations, and 
likewise other subjects for their usefulness. The new, 
re-directed spirit of education recognizes that the greatest 
culture is that knowledge which makes us master of the 
materials of our environment. We may be scholarly 
about many things, but uncultured if ignorant of the 
ideas that belong to our country 's greatest industry. 

The last twenty years have brought forth many sug- 
gestions concerning the scope, the materials, and the spirit 
that shall enter into the elementary study of Agriculture. 
The fundamental theory in this text has been to supply 

(V) 



vi Preface 

those ideas that will satisfy the natural interest of all 
children about the whys of common farm conditions, and 
the influence of these conditions on the success of the in- 
dividual farmer and the nation. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The authors feel a double pleasure in acknowledging 
the assistance that has made possible the practical 
school-room success of the earlier editions of this text. 
To write an elementary text in language that is simple 
and direct; free from provincial color and accurate without 
being technical; to satisfy the pupil, the grade teacher, 
and the supervisor, as well as the practical farmer and a 
long list of specialists who have a word to say about text 
books on Agriculture; — for reasonable success in meeting 
these varied points of- view, we owe much to the sym- 
pathetic counsel and patient criticism of many trained 
minds. It is a pleasure to acknowledge valuable assist- 
ance from: 

Miss Dora Schnell, Miss Ada Henderson, and many 
other successful primary and grade teachers. On the 
professional and technical points, valuable suggestions 
and criticisms have been given by Pres. J. H. Connell of 
the Oklahoma A. & M. College; Prof. T. V. Munson, an 
accomplished and distinguished horticulturist, recently 
deceased; Prof. A. M. TenEyck of the Iowa State College; 
Prof. V. M. Shoesmith, and Prof. Frank Spragg of the 
Michigan Agricultural College; Dr. E. S. Tucker of the 
University of Louisana; Prof. Wilmon Newell of the A. 
& M. College of Texas; Prof. Carl Hartman of the 
University of Texas, and Prof, D. N. Barrow, Editor of 
Texas Farmer. 

The following specialists in the United States Depart- 



Preface vii 

ment of Agriculture have likewise given many valuable 
suggestions while vising the manuscript: Dr. W. D. 
Hunter, and Dr. W. D, Pierce of the Bureau of Entomol- 
ogy; Dr. F. J, Cameron, and Prof. Tom Carter of the Bur- 
eau of Soils; Prof. C. R. Ball, Prof. S. H. Hastings, Prof. 
W. H. Long, Prof. C. W. Warburton, and Prof. D. A. 
Saunders of the Bureau of Plant Industry; to Prof. A. D. 
McNair for assistance on the chapter on Legumes; and 
to Dr. David Griffith for the chapter on Pastures, both of 
the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture; also to Prof. A. H. Leidigh of the Kansas Agri- 
cultural College for the chapter on Sorghums, and to 
Prof. J. C. Whitten and Dr. W. L. Howard of the Depart- 
ment of Horticulture, University of Missouri, and Prof. 
J. L. Lloyd of the University of Illinois for assistance 
on the chapters on Garden and Orchard Crops. 

Special acknowledgment is due Prof. J. B. Davidson, 
of Iowa State College for the chapter on Farm Machinery. 
Illustrations have been selected for their accuracy, 
suggestiveness and educational value. Acknowledgment 
is due to many officials of the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, and to the Kansas Agricultural College for 
the use of a number of illustrations by Prof. A. M. 
TenEyck. Other acknowledgments are made in connec- 
tion with particular illustrations. 

TO TEACHERS 
In using the text it is recommended that the course 
extend troughout the session and that the order of the 
text be followed up to page 117. Suggestions for seasonal 
projects are given in chapter 35, paragraphs 133, 213a, 
and in the two last chapters. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface v 

Agricultural Literature x 

PART I 

CHAPTER 

1. Agriculture and Knowledge 1 

II. Plants and Their Food 4 

III. Structure of Seeds 9 

IV. How Seedlings Get Established 12 

V. Plant Substance 24 

VI. How the Plant Increases Its Substance ... 28 

VII. The Water in Plants 32 

VIII. Structure and Work of Stems 34 

IX. The Plant as Related to the Soil 40 

X. Soils and Soil Management 52 

XI. Water in the Soil 67 

XII. Relation of the Plant to the Chemical Composition 

of the Soil 77 

XIII. Improving the Chemical Nature of the Soil 83 

XIV. Productiveness of Soils 95 

XV. Rotation of Crops 100 

XVI. Relations of Plants above Ground 103 

XVII. The Office of Flowers Ill 

XVIII. Pruning and Training of Plants 118 

XIX. Propagation of Plants 129 

XX. Improving Plants and Seeds 139 

XXI. Fungus Diseases of Plants 148 

XXII. Insects of the Farm 155 

XXIII. Some Speciallnjurious Insects 167 

XXIV. Useful Insects 176 

XXV. Wild Birds and Other Insect-eating Animals . . 180 

(viii) 



Table of Contents ix 
PART II. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XXVI. Animal Husbandry 189 

XXVII. Types and Breeds of Cattle 195 

XXVIII. Types and Breeds of Horses 204 

XXIX. Types and Breeds of Hogs .216 

XXX. Types and Breeds of iSheep and Goats .... 220 

XXXI. Farm Poultry 224 

XXXII. Nutrition of the Animal Body 235 

XXXIII. Farm Dairying 247 

PART III. SPECIAL TOPICS 

XXXIV. The Home Lot 258 

XXXV. School Gardens , 264 

XXXVI. Forestry 268 

XXXVII. Farm Machinery 273 

XXXVIII. Public Highways .280 

PART IV. CROPS 

XXXIX. Selection of Farm Crops 292 

XL. Pastures 296 

XLI. Legumes 300 

XLII. Grain Crops 305 

XLIII. Wheat, Oats, Barley, Rice and Rye . . . . 314 

XLIV. Corn 318 

XLV. Sorghums 330 

XLVI. Cotton 335 

XLVII. Garden Crops 347 

XLVIII. Orchard Crops 356 

APPENDIX 

A. Books on Agriculture 367 

B. Insecticides and Fungicides 368 

C. Composition of American Feeding Stuffs 372 

D. Per cent of Digestible Nutrients in Stock Feeds . . . 374 

E. Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents in Stock Feeds . . 375 

F. Standard Feeding Rations by Weight 376 

G. Standard Feeding Rations per Head 377 

H. Annual Rainfall in the United States 378 

I. Glossary 379 

Index 388 



AGRICULTURAL LITERATURE 

Agriculture is older than civilization, yet it is the 
last large field of human endeavor to develop a litera- 
ture that is distinctly its own, and the last to find a 
place in our system of education. 

In spite of this comparative newness, our publish- 
ing houses now issue books on special and general 
agriculture that compare favorably with the best in 
other lines of thought. Every school library should 
have a number of the more recent special treatises on 
the important phases of agriculture. A suggestive list 
is given in Appendix A. 

In addition to the volumes published by the 
regular book trade, the United States Department of 
Agriculture and the several state agricultural experi- 
ment stations publish, for free distribution, bulletins 
giving accounts of 'nvestigations on the varied prob- 
lems of agricultural science and practice. 

Special attention is called to the series of " Farm- 
ers' Bulletins,'' issued by the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. They are sent 
to all parties on request. This series now includes a 
special bulletin on all the leading field, orchard and 
garden crops, and the many classes of farm animals. 
These latter bulletins should be used regularly for sup- 
plementary readings in common school agriculture. 

Many states have a state department of agricul- 
ture that publish bulletins dealing with agriculture. 
With a few exceptions, all government publications are 
sent free. Application should be made to the Direc- 
tors of the state experiment stations. 



w 



ELEMENTARY PRmCIPLES 
OF AGRICULTURE 



PART I 

CHAPTER I 

AGRICULTURE AND KNOWLEDGE 

1. Agriculture and Life. "The object of agriculture,'* 
says Professor Johnson, " is the production of certain 
plants and certain animals which are employed to feed, 
clothe, and otherwise serve the human race." Every 
American should understand the elementary principles 
of agriculture, because it is our country's most impor- 
tant industry. Whatever materially affects the pro- 
ductions of the farms and ranches also affects the trades 
and professions, for the latter are the chief consumers 
of agricultural products. 

2. The Three Phases of Agriculture. There are three 
phases of agriculture: first, the business phase; second, 
the arts or crafts phase; and third, the scientific phase. 
Agriculture, as a means of making a living, is a business. 
Growing crops and stocky and the manufacturing of 
these raw materials into finished products, are neces- 
sary arts, based on a knowledge of the working of natu- 
ral forces. The giving of milk by a cow, and the develop- 
ment of a peach from a fiower, are natural phenomena. 
Increasing the flow of milk, and increasing the fruitful- 
ness of a plant, are useful arts. Doing these things 

A (1) 



2 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

for profit is a matter of business. Knowing how these 
things are done, how to control the natural forces so 
that certain results are secured, are matters of knowl- 
edge. When all this knowledge is systematically ar- 
ranged, we have a science. As it is about agriculture, 
it is agricultural science. 

3. Natural Science is organized knowledge of the 
phenomena of natural objects. The soil, the plants and 
the animals with which the farmer works are natural 
objects. A knowledge of the science of the natural ob- 
jects of the farm serves to guide the farmer in the 
practice of his craft. Knowing how plants grow is not 
only interesting, but also useful information to persons 
who grow plants. The same is true of animals. To know 
something of how plants grow is to have a knowledge 
of botany. To know how to grow plants is to have 
some knowledge of agriculture. 

4. A Knowledge of the Science of Agriculture is de- 
sirable. Ability to work amounts to little without the 
application of knowledge. We may know how, or possess 
the skill to do a certain kind of work, without knowing 
the reason for doing it in that particular way. A man 
may guide a team and hold a plow so that it runs 
smoothly, and yet not know why, or when, or how to 
plow, to secure a desired result. Hence, we have an art 
of doing things, and a science of why, when and how. 
The master workman must possess the scientific knowl- 
edge that underlies his trade. 

5. How a Knowledge of Agriculture is Gained. Knowl- 
edge comes by exact observation and correct thinking. 
Observations are sometimes incorrect or incomplete. 
As a basis for correct thinking, we must have accurate 
observation. Books are merely the printed statements 



Agriculture and Knowledge 3 

of what others have observed and thought. Hence, 
book information is not always in accord with the 
actual conditions', and, by placing too much confidence 
in the printed page, one is sometimes misled. An ancient 
writer stated that a cow had eight upper front teeth. 
For centuries afterward, this statement was believed 
and repeated in many books, until one more careful 
looked into a cow's mouth and found, not eight, but 
no upper front teeth. Practical farmers, teachers, and 
books may guide us as to how best to find out, but we 
must use our own hands, eyes, and minds to acquire 
knowledge, if we wish to really know. In writing out 
our observations, we must be careful to distinguish 
between what is observed and the conclusions which 
we make from our observations. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What is the object of Agriculture? 2. Why should Americans 
particularly study Agriculture? 3. What are the three phases of 
Agriculture? Distinguish between these by familiar examples. 
4. What is a Natural Science? 5. How does Botany differ from 
the Science of Agriculture? 6. In what way is a knowledge of the 
Science of Agriculture desirable? 7. How may this knowledge be 
gained? 



CHAPTER II 
PLANTS AND THEIR FOOD 

6. Environment is a general term for all the condi- 
tions that surround an animal or plant, such as air, 
soil, water, light, temperature, other plants or animals, 
etc. 

7. Culture seeks to make the environment favorable 
to the particular plant or animal, or to produce plants 
and animals better adapted to the environment. The 
most important conditions are those that affect the 
supply of the substances used for food by the plant or 
animal. To encourage the growth of, say, a corn plant, 
we destroy the weeds that would injure it, and cultivate 
the ground to make a better home for its roots. To 
intelligently cultivate plants, we must first learn how 
plants grow and get their food. 

8. Not All Plants Use the Same Kinds of Food. Not all 
plants are like those familiar to us, as trees, herbs, etc. 
Possiblj'' we do not often think of the yeast put in the 
dough to make the bread " rise," or the " green scum " 
on the ponds, as plants,— yet they are, though very simple 
ones. The yeast which we get from the grocery store 
as " compressed yeast " is only a mass of millions of 
very small plants, each one composed of a tiny mass of 
living substance, called protoplasm.'-^' This mass of 
protoplasm is surrounded by a delicate membrane, 
called a cell-wall. These plants are so small that they 

*Protoplasm (meaning primitive substance) is the older term for that part 
of the cell having the property of life Some writers prefer the term bioplasm 
(meaning living substance). 

(4) 



Plants and Their Food 



can not be seen by the naked eye. When greatly magni- 
fied by the microscope, their simple structure is plainly 
seen. Each plant is only a single cell, such as shown 
in Fig. 2 a and b. Each one of 
these plants, or cells, has the 
power to form daughter plants, 
that soon become independent. 
9. Fungi. Yeast belongs to 
a class of plants called fungi 
(fun-gi — singular, fungus). These 
fungus plants are very small, 
but they are very important. 
The bacteria causing the nodules 
on peas and clover plants are 
very beneficial. Some cause dis- 
ease that destroys other plants, 
like the rust on oats, mildew on 
roses and grapes, or the rots of 
fruits and roots. Other kinds of 
these simple plants cause disease in animals, as chol- 
era in swine and chickens. Their food consists of the 
substances of other plants, or of 
sugars, fat, lean 




Fig. 2. Yeast Colonies, a, sur- 
face view of full-grown 
plants with young branches 
or buds. 6, view of similar 
colonies seen as though cut 
across. Magnified about 750 
times. 



meat, white of 
egg, etc. In order 
to become famil- 
iar with the con- 
ditions which 
favor the growth 
of yeast-like 
plants, we shall 
set up the follow- 
ing experiment: 




animals, like starch, 

C3 £3 




!^S&% 



<i:* 



Fig. 3 Figures of various kinds of Bacteria. After 
Cohn and Sachs. Very highly magnified. 



6 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

9a. Food Materials for Yeast. Secure two large bottles or fruit 
jars, and fill both about two-thirds full of clear well-water. To one 
jar add a teaspoonful of sugar and about as much of the white of 
an egg. See that both are completely dissolved. Now add to both 
jars small lumps of the ordinary "compressed yeast, " or dry yeast 
cake, secured from the bakery. Whichever is used, see that it is 
well dissolved in a' spoonful of water before adding to the jar. Stir 
well and notice that the liquids are clear, or nearly so. Set aside in 
a warm place, but not in strong light, and observe once or twice 
a day for several days. The liquid soon becomes cloudy in the jar 
to which the food was added, but not in the jar of water. The cloudy 
effects are due to the large number of yeast plants formed. The 
sugar and egg substance furnish the nourishment for their growth. 
They do not nmltiply in the pure water. Yeast grows in the bread 
dough because the dough contains all the substances needed for 
the nourishment of the yeast plants. In the "dry yeast" these 
tiny cells are in a dormant condition, like seeds. 



10. The Green "Pond Scums" belong to a class of 
plants called algae (singular, alga). There are many kinds, 
and nearly all of them are very 
simple, being composed of single 
cells, or small masses of cells. 
Algce contain a green coloring 
matter, which yeast-like plants 
do not have. We shall later learn 
something of the value of this 
green coloring matter to the 



plant. 

11. The Food Materials of 
Green Plants are made from 
water, carbonic acid gas, and the 
simple minerals dissolved in the 
natural waters of the soil. These 
are combined to make all the substances necessary for 
the nourishment and growth of their cells. They must 




Fig. 4. Cells of Algae A, a 
simple one-celled form with 
the cells embedded in a jelly- 
like wall. B and C, forms 
with the cells arranged in 
chains. 



Plants and Their Food 



have sunlight before t-hey can make their food materials 
out of the simple substances named. 

11a. Food Materials Used by Green Plants. Use a jar filled with 
clear spring water, as mentioned in 9a, but add nothing to the jar 
but a small bit of some common pond scum, secured from the streams 
or watering troughs. Place the jar in a well-lighted window, prefer- 
ably a north window. Take care that the water does not get too 
warm by staying too long in very bright light. Observe from day 
to day to see if the alga mass is growing larger. It will grow much 
slower than the yeast plants. The jar may be kept for weeks by- 
adding water from time to time, to make up the loss by evaporation. 
If the alga grows, we must conclude that it gets all the food it used 
from the well-water and air, because nothing else was added. The 
water contains salts dissolved from the soil, and carbonic acid gas 
dissolved from the air. 

12. Green Plants, like the pond scums, herbs, trees, 
etc., that are able to make their food materials out of 
simple substances, are called "independent," or "self- 
feeding plants." Plants like the yeast, which must have 
their food substances pre- 
pared for them, are called 
"dependent plants." 

13. Cellular Structure of 
Plants. The yeast and algse 
are examples of very simple 
plants. The higher plants 
which we know as trees, 
herbs and weeds, are very 
large, bat, if examined with 
a strong microscope, we find 
that their bodies are made Fig. 5. Growth of individual cells, a, 
up of thousands, even mil- ^jri^Zol'^rieA^^'oA 
Hons, of tiny cells, much like f °trfat?rTa|l^Lf STmaJ: 
the cells of the alga and vSea"' ""'"'"' "' ""''"''' "' 




8 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



yeast, except that their sides are flattened by pressing 
against each other. New cells are formed by a single 
cell dividing into two cells (Fig. 6). These new cells 
grow to a certain size and divide again, and so on till 
great numbers are formed. (See Fig. 14, C.) 

14. The Living 
Substance of Cells. 
The cell is the unit 
out of which all plant 
and animal bodies are 
made, just as the 
brick is the unit out 
of which buildings are 
made. Within each cell-wall is the living substance, 
called protoplasm. It differs from dead substance in 
that it has a different chemical constitution, and the 
power of self-action. Protoplasm is a clear granular 
substance, like the white of an egg or mucilage. It 
differs from these in that it has life. 




A B C D 

Fig. 6. In forming new cells the living sub- 
stance or protoplasm divides and then a cell- 
wall is formed between them. 



QUESTIONS 

1. Define environment, 2 What is the purpose of "culture?" 

3. What is the most important condition of plant environment? 

4. Describe the yeast plant. 5. Name other icinds of these simple 
plants, and mention their importance. 6. What do you learn from 
the yeast experiment as to the kind of food used by the yeast plants? 

7. What is the chief difference between a fungus and an alga? 

8. "What do you learn from the "pond scum" experiment as to 
the food of the alg;e? 9. Are the higher plants, such as herbs and 
trees, in any way similar to simple plants, such as yeast and pond 
scum? 10, Why are green plants called independent; fungi, de- 
pendent plants? 



CHAPTER III 

STRUCTURE OF SEEDS 

15. Germinating Seeds. The " higher plants " have 
their round of Ufe from the seed to the mature plant, 
forming roots, stems, branches, leaves and flowers. 
Many crops of the farm and garden are started each 
year from seed. We should observe a number of the 
larger kinds of seeds, such as corn, beans, peas, cotton, 
squash, sunflower, castor beans, and any other large 
seeds that may be easily secured. After we have closely 
examined them as to their size, texture of their coverings, 
and other quali- 
ties, a number of 
each kind should 
be planted and 
observed in the 
schoolroom while 
they are germi- 
nating. They may 
be planted out-of-doors if the weather is warm, but it 
will be much better to plant them in boxes of moist, 
clean sand or sawdust. A shallow box, 3 or 4 inches 
deep, like the gardener's flat (Fig. 7), will answer the 
purpose very well. After the seeds are planted, the 
box should be kept in a warm place. It may be kept 
covered with a pane of glass, to prevent the sand 
from drying out too rapidly. The student's ger- 
minating seeds will furnish fine study material for the 
class. 




Fig. 7. Gardeners' flats. A, showing holes for 
drainage. B, filled with sand or loam ready for 
planting. 



(9) 




10 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

15a. Have the pupils make a list of all the common plants 
with which they are familiar that are started from seeds; also, those 
that are started from bulbs, roots, and cuttings. 

16. Structure of Seeds. When we look at a bean, we 
see it is covered with a thin skin, or "seed-coat," which 
is quite smooth except at the edge where it was attached 
to the bean pod. Now, if we remove this coat from a 

seed (using one that has been 
soaked in water over-night), two 
large, thick " seed leaves," or 
cotyledons (cot-y-le-dons), joined 
to a minute stem, may be seen. 
(Fig. 8.) One end of the stem is 
round and plump, while the other 
bears two tiny leaves. The latter 
Fig. 8. Bean seed split open is the stem end, and bears the 

to show parts of plantlet. ^^^^^ ^^^_ ^j^^ ^,^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^ 

the other end. Thus we see that the bean has all the 
parts of a plant, but a very small or embryo plant. 

17. Stored-up Food in Seeds. Plants need food to 
build up their bodies and provide energy, just as animals 
do. The cotyledons do not look like ordinary leaves, 
because they are filled with much starch and other 
substances, to nourish the plantlet when it begins to 
grow. Substances stored up in seeds like this are called 
*' reserve foods." The reserve food in the case of the 
bean is largely starch. In some plants it is largely oil, 
as in cotton seed, sunflower, pecan, flax, etc. Besides 
starch and oils, another class of substances is present 
as a reserve food of all kinds of seeds, called pro- 
teids. Proteids from animal bodies are familiar, as the 
whites and yolks of eggs, clabber of milk, clot of 
blood, etc. (See Appendix C.) 



Structure of Seeds 



11 



18. Corn. The corn " grain " is covered with a clear 
skin, or seed-coat.* If we cut through a corn grain, as 
shown in Fig. 9, we see a yellowish oily 
germ, or embryo, on one side, and a large 
starchy mass of additional reserve food 
stored back of the germ. When the re- 
serve food is stored outside of the germ, 
it is called endosperm. The endosperm in 
the corn grain exists in two layers, one 
of which is starchy and loose, and the 
other clear and hard. 

19. Cotton. In cotton, the seed-coat 
is covered with a layer of fibers, or lint. 
The hard brownish coat encloses an em- 
bryo cotton plant, with leaves closely 
rolled around the stem. The parts are 
best made out in seeds that have just 
germinated. Cotton seeds are very rich 
in oils and proteids. 




QUESTIONS 



Fig. 9. Section of 
a grain' of com 
showing the 
parts of the germ 
or embryo com 
plant {A, B and 
E), and position 
of reserve food. 
A, root end and 
B shoot end of 
embryo; E, the 
part of the em- 
bryo that ab- 
sorbs the reserve 
food during ger- 
mination; C, soft 
starch; D, horny 
part of reserve 
food. 



1 . In what other ways than by seeds may plants 
start new individuals? 2. Name the parts of a plant 
that are enclosed in a bean seed. Describe them as 
they are in the seed. 3. Of what use are the cotyledons? 4. What 
is meant by reserve food? 5. What substances may be present in 
reserve foods? 6. Describe the corn seed. 7. What is the essential 
difference between the bean seed and the corn seed? 8. Describe 
the cotton seed. 9. Is it most like the corn seed, or the bean seed? 
that is, in what part of the seed is the reserve food stored? 

*In reality, the covering of a grain of corn is double, but the two coats are 
so closely united that it is difficult to distinguish them without special prepa- 
ration. The outer coat corresponds to the pod, or seed-case, as in beans. 



CHAPTER IV 



HOW SEEDLINGS GET ESTABLISHED 



20. Germination. Germinating seeds must have 
water, air, and a certain amount of warmth. The prompt- 
ness of germination depends on how 
well these conditions are provided. 
In three or four days, seeds sown in 
moist sand will be found to be very- 
much larger. They have absorbed 
water from the sand, so much so 
that the weight of the seed is now 
much greater than when it was dry. 
In some, the coverings of the seed 
will be found broken, and tiny roots 
pushing through. If they are watched 
for some days, it will be found that 
this tiny root grows in a downward 
direction, regardless of the position 
of the seed. The root makes a con- 
siderable growth before the young 
stem, with its tiny leaves, gets out 
of the seed case. (Fig. 10.) When 
the embryo plant inside the case 
begins to grow, we say the seed is 
germinating. 

21. Root-hairs. The tiny rootlets 
which we found pushing through 
the seed coat are just like the thou- 
sands of branches found on roots of 




Fig. 10- During the early 
stages of germination 
the root grows faster 
than the shoot. A, root. 
B, shoot. C, starchy en- 
dosperm. D, homy en- 
dosperm. 



(12) 



How Seedlings Get Established 



13 



older plants. They are very delicate, 
and it is better to grow the roots in 
moist air, to see the many minute 
root-hairs. On a seedling with root- 
lets an inch or more long, notice 
that just back of the tip it is covered 
with a very fine fuzzy growth. This 
fuzzy growth is composed of thou- 
sands of slender tube-like cells, called 
root-hairs. (Figs. 11 and 12.) 

They are formed near the root's 
tip. After a time they die. They 
cannot be found on the root except 
for a short way from the tip. Unless 
the soil is very carefully washed from 
the rootlets, the root-hairs may not 
been seen. (Fig. 11, B.) 

22. How the Root Absorbs Water. 
Even though the seedlings that have 
been growing in sand or sawdust be 
very carefully washed, much of the 
adheres to the hairs. (Fig. 12.) The root 





Fig 12. Root-hairs of corn seedling wiih 
soil particles adhering closely. 



Fig. 11. Seedlings of 
mustard. A, with 
particles of soil cling- 
ing to root-hairs. B, 
after removal of soil 
by a stream of water. 
After Sachs. 

sand or sawdust 
-hairs hold the soil 
particles to the 
root. When the 
roots are growing 
in moist air, they 
are straight; but 
in the soil the 
hairs apply them- 
selves very closely 
to the soil parti- 
cles. (Fig. 13.) 
The water ab- 



14 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



sorbed by the root is first taken in by the root-hairs. 
The seedUngs may be growing in soil so dry that water 
may not be pressed out of it, still, the soil particles are 
covered with a film of moisture from which the roots 
absorb their supply. (See Fig. 39.) 

23. How the Root Grows. The root grows only at the 
tip. The tip does not grow straight through the soil, 




Fig. 13. Diagram of a portion of soil penetrated bv root hairs, h, h', arising 
from root, e. At z, s, s' the hair has grown into contact with some of the 
soil particles, T, which are surrounded by water films (shaded by parallel 
lines). After Sachs. 

but bends to and fro in a sort of circle, taking 
advantage of the small openings between the soil par- 
ticles. It is covered with a delicate root-cap. As the 
root lengthens, the cells of the cap are rubbed off, but 
new ones are formed to take their place. Only the region 
in front of the root-hairs has the power of lengthening. 
(Fig. 14.) 

24. Absorption of Water by Seeds. Seeds absorb 
water from the soil particles. When dry seeds are placed 
in a bed of moist sand or loam, the littie film of moisture 
that covers the soil particles is absorbed by the seeds. 



How Seedlings Get Established 



15 



Seeds will not absorb enough water from moist air to 
make them germinate. They must be in contact with 
a substance covered with a film of water. 

24a. The Swelling of Seeds, Place some common beans in a 
glass of water, and observe every few minutes. Where does the 
seed coat wrinkle first? 

24b. Rate of Absorption Affected by the 
Amount of Water Present. Place a dozen 
seeds in a glass of 
water, a second dozen 
in wet sand, and a 
third dozen in slightly 
damp sand. Examine 
every day, and judge 
the amount of water 
absorbed, by the in- 
creased size and weight 
of the seeds. 

24c. Rate of Ab- 
sorption Affected by the 
Number of Points of 
Contact. Take two lots 
of seeds, corn for ex- 
ample, and place each 
lot in a tumbler or 
other vessel with the 
same amount of moist 
sawdust. In one, 
sprinkle a layer of 
sawdust, and then a layer of seeds, then another layer of each, 
taking care that in one the sawdust is not pressed down, but kept 
very loose. Prepare the second vessel just as above, but press the 
sawdust firmly around the seeds. This increases the number of 
points of contact between the sawdust and the seeds. Cover, to 
prevent drying out, and examine the seeds at the end of every 
twelve hours. Does pressing the sawdust about the seeds make 
them swell more quickly? 

24d. Prompt Absorption Hastens Germination. Sow some peas in 
a gardener's flat, filled with very loose sawdust. Press the sawdust 





Fig. 14. A, a young root of the pea 
marked with fine lines of water- 
proof ink into 13 spaces. B, the 
same root, 24 hours later, showing 
elongation only in terminal 5 
spaces. The rate of growth is 
greatest in the second and third 
spaces and slow in the first, fourth 
and fifth. Magnified 2 diam. C, tip 
of root greatly magnified and shown 
in section . to, root-cap; i, younger part of 
cap; z, dead cells separating from cap; s, 
growing point; p, central cylinder. 



16 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

down firmly on one end and leave loose on the other. Cover with 
a glass, to prevent drying out, and note the time required for ger- 
mination in the two ends. 

25. Other Conditions affecting the rate of absorption 
of water by the seeds, are temperature, the nature 
of the seed-coat, etc. The seed covering of most culti- 
vated plants will absorb and transmit the soil-water 
quite freely, though many seeds are provided with thick, 
bony shells, or coats, that resist the action of water for 
weeks, even months, if they once become dry. Such 
seeds are the peach, locust, walnut, and most wild 
seeds. Germination may sometimes be hastened in 
such seeds by soaking in warm water before planting; 
freezing while moist aids and hastens others, especially 
those having thick, hard shells, such as peach, walnut, 
hickory, plum, etc. 

26. How Warmth Affects Germination. A certain 
degree of warmth is necessary before seeds will germi- 
nate. If we had placed in a refrigerator the seeds used 
in the experiment described in ^ 15, the corn and 
beans would not have germinated, although they 
had plenty of water and air. This shows that a certain 
amount of warmth is necessary for germination. Some 
seeds, however, will germinate at a very low temperature, 
though they do not germinate quickly. The lowest 
temperature at which seeds will germinate is called 
the " minimum germination temperature." The high- 
est temperature at which they can germinate and live 
is called the " maximum germination temperature." 
Between the highest and the lowest there is a temperature 
at which germination takes place quickly, but without 
injury to the seedlings. This is called the " optimum 
germination temperature." These temperatures have 



How Seedlings Get Established 



17 



been determined by trial for many kinds of seeds. 
The following results were reported by the celebrated 
German botanist, Julius Sachs:* 

Effect of Temperatures on Germination 



Kind of Seeds 


Minimum or low- 
est between 


Optimum or best 
between 


Maximum or 
highest be- 
tween 


Oats 

Pea 

Wheat". ............ 

Indian Corn . . 

Sunflower 


Fahr. 
32-41° 
32-41° 
32-41° 
41-51° 
41-51° 


Fahr. 
77- 88° 

77- 88° 
77- 88° 
99-111° 
88- 99° 


Fahr. 
88- 99° 
88- 99° 
88-108° 

111-122° 
99-111° 


Pumpkin. 


51-61° 93-111° 
60-65° 88- 99° 
88-99° 99-1 1 1 ° 


111-122° 


Melon 


111-122° 


Alfalfa 


111-122° 











27. The Soil Should Be Warm before seeds are planted. 
If the soil is cold, or has a temperature just above the 
minimum temperature, germination will be slow, and 
many seeds will rot before the seedling is established. 
The soil should be considerably above the minimum 
temperature before seeds are planted. The variation 
in the minimum, temperature required for germination 
in different kinds of seeds explains why some seeds can 
be planted much earlier than others. 

28. Effect of Temperature on the Promptness of 
Germination. In some tests made by Professor Haber- 
landt, it was found that the seeds of most of the small 
grain crops required five to seven days to begin germi- 
nation at 41° Fahr., while at 51° Fahr. only half the 
time was required. At 65° Fahr., one day was sufficient 

*Julius Sachs, esteemed as the founder of modem plant physiology, was 
bom in Breslau, 1832, and died in 1897. The great interest aroused by the 
results of his investigations on plant nutrition led to the establishment of one 
of the first public institutions for the scientific study of agricultural problems. 



18 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

for wheat, rye and oats. Corn required three days, 
and tobacco six days. Sugar beets germinated in 
twenty-two days when the temperature was 41'^ Fahr., 
while, at 65° Fahr., germination commenced on the 
third day. (See Tf 94, Temperature of Soils.) 

29. Germinating Seeds Need Air. Growing plants, 
including germinating seeds, must have air. They use 
the oxygen of the air, and we call it respiration, just as 
we do in animals. While plants do not have lungs, they 
absorb the oxygen of the air and give off carbon dioxid. 
(But see T| 48, Carbon Assimilation.) 

29a. To show that germinating seeds use the oxygen of the air, 
take two large fruit jars with good rubber bands. Into one put noth- 
ing. Into, the other put a big handful of soaked seeds of corn or 
peas. Screw the tops on tightly and let stand for about twelve hours. 
Then carefully remove the top from the empty jar and thrust a 
lighted splinter down to near the bottom of the jar, noting the dura- 
tion and brilliancy of the burning taper. The taper goes out after 
a time, because the burning of the wood uses up the oxygen in the 
jar. Now thrust a lighted paper into the jar with the germinating 
seeds, noting if it burns as brightly as in the empty jar. It goes out 
quickly because the germinating seeds have used up all the oxygen, 
and that carbon dioxid is present may be proven by lime-water 
poured down the side of each jar. The empty one gives no result, 
while the other will show a white band on the inside of the jar. This 
is the test for carbon dioxid.* 

30. Not All Seeds Germinate. Seeds often fail to ger- 
minate when given the proper conditions for germina- 
tion. This may be due to one or more causes. They 
may be too old; they may have been gathered when 
immature; they may have become too dry, or frozen 
when not sufficiently dry. Sometimes they become 

♦Carbon dioxid, exhaled from the lungs of animals and by germinating 
seeds, is a gas formed by the union of two elements — carbon and oxygen. Oxygen 
is a gas forming a large part of the air; carbon is a solid familiar as charcoal, 
which is crude carbon. 



How Seedlings Get Established 



19 



damp and spoiled by molds. In many cases, insects 
injure them while stored. It is not usually possible to 
tell if seeds will germinate by looking at them. 

31. Testing Seeds for Germinating Powers. If there 
is reason to think that a particular lot of seeds are not 
practically sound, they should be tested. It is a simple 
matter to test the germinating power of a sample of 
seeds. Several forms of seed-testing apparatus may be 
easily provided. Any arrangement will do that will 
allow us to place a counted number of seeds under the 
proper conditions for 
germination. Small 
seeds may be placed 
between moistened 
layers of clean cloth 
or soft paper. It is 
best to wash the cloth 
in boiling water be- 
fore use, in order to 
lessen the Hability to 
the growth of molds. 
Moist sand or saw- 
dust is very satisfac- 
tory for large seeds like corn, beans, etc. We will later 
learn more about testing seeds for yielding power (TJ213a). 

31a. Farmer B. bought two bushels of alfalfa seed at S9 per 
bushel, of which 95 per cent were viable, that is, capable of germi- 
nating. He was offered seed for $8 per bushel, of which only 75 
per cent would germinate. What was the actual cost of a bushel 
of live seed in each lot? 

32. How Deep Should Seeds be Planted? Seeds should 
be planted just deep enough to secure the conditions 
necessary for germination. The soil is warmer near the 




Fig. 15. A good seed tester. Clean .-^a/nl and 
soup-plates, 



20 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 




Fig. 16. Seed-testing devices 

surface, but also dryer. If planted too deep, it will 
take a longer time to begin germination, because the 
deeper ground is colder, particularly so in early spring. 
The table below shows the effect on the time in 
coming up, of planting wheat at different depths, and 
the number of seedlings that grew. 

Proportion of seed 
Depth Time in coming up that grew 
^ inch 11 days -g 

1 inch 12 days all 

2 inches 18 days | 

3 inches 20 days | 

4 inches 21 days ^ 

5 inches 22 days f 

6 inches 23 days ^ 

The seedling will be more exhausted before it reaches 

the surface if planted too deep. 
The seedling stage is a delicate 
one. Success, therefore, in 
getting a good stand will often 
depend on how well the soil 
has been prepared for the 
seeds. The soil intended for 
the seeds should be warm, 
moist and mellow. The par- 
ticles should be so fine that 
the seed will be in contact with 
grains of soil on all sides. Small 
, ^ ,3 seeds, like tobacco, are merely 

Fig. 17. 1 , Pea planted just deep pressed iuto the surface with a 

enough to be in well moistened i ^ ttt-.i i n l 

soil; 2, too deep seedlings delay- boai'd. With SUCh Small SeedS, 
ed in reaching surface; 3, too • i x i l J 

deep,unabie to reach the surface. Special arrangements should 




How Seedlings Get Established 21 

be made to keep the surface from drying out until the 
young plantlets have sent their roots into the soil. 

33. In Planting Field Seeds, it is often desirable to 
put them sufficiently deep to allow for some drying out 
of the surface soil. If planted very near the surface, hot 
winds will often dry the soil before the seeds absorb 
enough water to germinate. To produce quick germina- 
tion, it is sometimes desirable to compact the surface by 
rolling. This puts, the surface particles in closer con- 
tact with the seeds, and the moisture is absorbed more 
rapidly. In dry times, the seeds often germinate more 
quickly in the tracks made by persons walking across 
the field. Gardeners often pack the surface with a 
spade or board or roller, after sowing the seeds. When 
moisture is scarce in the soil, as is quite often the case 
at the planting time of field seeds, a most practical 
and successful way to secure the germination of seeds 
in drills is to make the laying-off plow or tool cut a 
deep V-shaped furrow in the compact soil, into which 
the seeds are dropped and covered to the proper depth 
with fine soil. This V- 

shaped furrow affords ^^'^^ "^ \-^' W ^^S^zs^ 

two banks of undis- 7: \ *' , '' DL^^r^fuzcH^ \ 

turbed soil holding \'. '"^' 7y' A^o/sr_jo/L /' ; 

a supply of moisture — — . . - ■ ;, '" - — — /'z.oVk-jo/^ —' 

for the seed (Fio" '''^'y/'^^y-y/''^///''//^^^^^^^ 

* Fig. 18. Planting seeds in the " water fur- 

^c>.) row" insures a more even supply of 

34. Prompt Germi- moisture. 

nation Important. Seeds that germinate quickly give 
more vigorous plants. Besides, seeds in the ground 
may be destroyed by insects, or caused to rot by fungi 
and bacteria, or rains may come and make a hard crust 
on the surface through which they cannot grow. Vig- 



22 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

orous-growing weeds may crowd out slow-growing seed- 
lings. Prompt germination may be secured under field 
conditions by thoroughly preparing the seed bed, and 
delaying planting until the soil is warmed sufficiently 
for the kind of seed to be planted. (See ^ 27.) 

35. Time Required to Complete Germination. The 
plantlets are nourished for a time by the reserve food 
in the seed. While the plantlet is dependent on this 
reserve food, it is called a "seedling." The root develops 
faster at first, with the result that the plantlet secures 
a more permanent supply of moisture from the deeper 
layers. The roots grow down or downward, and the 
stem and leaves grow upward into the air. The time 
required for the completion of the seedling stage will 
vary with the kind of seed and the conditions which 
affect germination. When conditions favor quick ger- 
mination and rapid growth, the supply of reserve food 
is used up much sooner. Wheat seedlings will exhaust 
their reserve food in ten days in warm weather; but, if 
the temperature is low, it may be forty days before the 
plantlet is thoroughly established. 

36. Hotbeds. It is often desirable to grow seedlings 
under artificial conditions, so that the plants may be 
ready for transplanting when the warm season comes. 
Many tender garden plants, such as tomatoes and cab- 
bages, are propagated in this way. Coldframes and hot- 
beds are often used A coldframe is an inclosed bed of 
soil that may be covered at night to protect from frost. 
A hotbed is an inclosed bed of soil, covered with glass, 
as shown in Fig. 19, which is warmed by the heat of 
fermenting compost placed below the bed of soil. Some- 
times steam pipes are run below the seed-bed to supply 
the warmth. 



How Seedlings Get Established 



23 



QUESTIONS 

1. Describe germination. 2. What are root-hairs? 3. What 
is their position on the roots? 4. What is the purpose of root-hairs? 
5. At what place does the root grow? 6. How is this growing region 
protected? 7. What are the conditions necessary for germination? 
8. Does the air contain enough moisture for germination? 9. Name 
some seeds whose seed-coats hinder quick germination. 10. How 
may this hindrance be overcome? 11. Why do not most seeds 
germinate in winter? 12. What is meant by "minimum germination 
temperature"? By "maximum germination temperature"? By 
"optimum"? 13. Discuss the relation of soil, and the time of 
planting, to these temperatures. 14. Give in substance the results 
of Professor Haberlandt's experiment in regard to the effect of tem- 
perature on the promptness of germination. 15. What necessary 
food does the plant get from the air? Does the plant breathe in the 
same gas that we do? 16. Name some of the causes of failure in 
germination. 17. What are some of the conditions of successful 
seed-planting? 18. What are coldframes? hotbeds? 




Fig. 19. Hotbeds and coldframes. The upper figure is a coldframe. If let 
down into the soil and warmed by fermenting compost, it is called a hot- 
bed. A, Warm air; B, garden loam; C, fermenting compost; D, bank 
of soil. 



CHAPTER V 
PLANT SUBSTANCE 

37. The Body of a Plant, including stem, root, seeds, 
etc., is composed chiefly of framework material and 
reserve food. The framework material is never used 
by the plant for any other purpose. The reserve food 
contains a variety of substances. Sometimes this re- 
serve food is separated by mechanical means in an 
almost pure condition, such as starch from corn and 
potatoes, cooking oil from cotton seed, linseed oil from 
flax seed, castor oil from castor beans, corn oil from 
corn, and peanut butter (a thick oil) from peanuts. 
When the starches and oils are thus removed, there 
still remain the bran and meal, which contain a variety 
of food substances. 

38. In Germinating Seeds, all the reserve food may 
be used to nourish the young plant. The substances 
in the thick cotyledons of the bean were seen to wither 
away as the seedUng grew. The store ot food for the 
young plant in the seed was put there by the parent 
plant. A corn grain will produce from one thousand 
to two thousand seeds and a large stalk. Where does 
the seedling get all the food materials to nourish so 
large a stalk, and lay up a large store for so many other 
seeds? Before we answer this question, we will try to 
find out something of the nature of the substances in 
plants. 

39. Composition of Plant Substance. Chemists have 
ways of separating the various substances found in 

(24) ■ 



Plant Substance 25 

plants. They find that every plant contains a variety 
of substances, though the quantity and number vary 
in different kinds of plants. Some plants, as corn, con- 
tain much starch in their seeds, and but little in the 
stalk. Some plants have a large amount of sugar, as 
beets and sugar-cane, while others contain oil. These 
substances which we call starch, oils, sugars, proteids, 
resins, gums, acids, etc., are themselves compounds 
of a number of "elements." The carbon mentioned in 
Tf 29 is an element. So are iron, sulphur, lead and the 
oxygen of the air. 

40. Compounds of Elements. A simple element is a 
substance of a peculiar kind that cannot be reduced by 
analysis to any simpler state. When wood burns, the 
carbon (an element) of the wood combines with the 
oxygen (an element) of the air, to form an invisible 
gas, known as carbon dioxid (a compound). When iron 
" rusts," it has formed a compound v/ith the oxygen 
of the air. In germinating seeds, the oxygen absorbed 
is afterward given off as carbon dioxid. Oxygen com- 
bines with another element which we call hydrogen, 
to form the substance we call water. Thus we seQ that 
the same element may combine with a number of other 
elements, making a different compound or substance 
with each combination. 

41. Substances Found in Plants are usually complex 
compounds of the simple elements; for instance, starch 
is a combination of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, 
and the properties of the substance we call starch are 
different from any of its parts. Sugar is composed of 
these same elements, but has them combined in a 
different way. Wood is composed of the same three 
elements, yet combined in still a different way. 



26 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

42. Protoplasm, or living substance, has the power 
to combine simple compounds to form the complex 
ones that compose the plant or animal body. Living 
green plants absorb water and mineral matter from the 
soil and carbon dioxid from the air, and with these form 
the complex plant substances. Light is needed by the 
leaves in making these combinations. 

43. Elements Necessary for Plant Growth. There 
are about eighty different elements known, but only 
about a dozen are actually used by plants. The follow- 
ing elements are necessary for the healthy growth of 
plants: (1) Carbon, absorbed by the leaves from the 
air as carbon dioxid; (2) oxygen and (3) hydrogen taken 
in as water; and the following, all taken in by the roots 
from the soil solutions as soluble salts: (4) nitrogen, 
(5) phosphorus, (6) potassium, (7) calcium, (8) magne- 
sium, (9) sulphur, (10) iron, and (11) chlorine. Other 
elements are often found in plants, but only the ones 
named above are really essential. If any one of these 
essential elements is withheld from the plant, the normal 
growth is impaired. The importance of the mineral 
substances to the welfare of plants will be discussed 
later. (See Chapters XII and XIII.) 

44. Non-essential Elements in Plants. Besides the 
essential elements named, plants usually contain other 
elements that are really not necessary for their normal 
growth. The most common ones are sodium (the prin- 
cipal element in common salt), and silicon, a constitu- 
ent of sand. 

45. The Amounts of the Elements in the Plant Body. 
About half of the plant substance is carbon. It is a 
part of practically all compounds found in plants. 
Oxygen and hydrogen, too, are parts of nearly all 



Plant Substance 27 

substances in plant and animal bodies. Nitrogen is 
always present in the living substance, or protoplasm. 
The other elements, usually called the " mineral ele- 
ments," while absolutely essential, occur only in small 
amounts, usually less than five per cent. These elements 
form the "ash," when plants are burned. 

Note. — It is important that students should have a reason- 
ably clear notion of the properties of matter, what an element is, 
and the differences between a mixture, a solution, and a chemical 
compound. Some simple experiments will prove very helpful in this 
connection, such as the burning of a match, a lamp, or a sulphur or 
tallow candle, with a discussion and explanation of the phenomena 
in each case. Likewise, experiments involving the dissolving of salt 
or sugar in water, and its subsequent recovery by the evaporation 
of the water, should be performed and discussed fully. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Name some of the reserve food substances. 2. What is 
meant by a "chemical element"? Name some common ones. 3. Do 
plants contain simple elements? Name three plant materials that 
contain the same elements combined differently. 4. By what 
means does the plant manufacture complex compounds out of 
simple compounds? 5. Name the elements essential for plant 
growth. 6. Name the most common non-essential elements in 
plants. 7. What are the proportions of the elements in plants? 



CHAPTER VI 
HOW THE PLANT INCREASES ITS SUBSTANCE 

46. The Work of Leaves. The leaves are the food 
factory of the plant. Perhaps you have never thought 
to ask why most leaves are flat. You will find a sugges- 
tion of the answer if you note that their flat faces 
are usually turned toward the source of the strong- 
est light. Look at a tree, to note the position of the 
leaves, as seen from a distance and from among the 
branches. This position is an advantage to the leaf in 
carrying on its work, because it secures the greatest 
amount of energy from the sunlight for the food-making 
process. 

47. Structure of Leaves. A thin section of a leaf, 
when examined under a powerful microscope, is seen 




^'^ 



Fig. 20. Cross-section of a leaf through a "vein," or fibro-vascular bundle. 
Os, upper surface; us, under surface; o, layer of outside cells forming the 
epidermis; sp, Stoma; g, water duct; wb, phloem; hlz, wood cells of fibro- 
vascular bundle. 

(28) 



How the Plant Increases Its Substance 



29 



to be composed of a great number of cells. The surface 
layer forms a skin, or " epidermis," which keeps the 
cells within from ,.,. 

drying. (Fig. ^<^W//y 
20.) The epi- 
dermis is in 
two layers. The 
outer, or cutin 
layer, is only a thin 
membrane which, while 
transparent, to allow the 
light to reach the inner 
tissues of the leaf, is 
impervious to water. 
The second layer is a tier of cells 
which support the cutin layer. This 
epidermis is very efficient in keeping 
the water in the leaf. On the lower 
side of the leaf, and on both sides 
of some leaves, 
there are many 
small openings, 
to let the car- 
bon dioxid en- 
ter and the 
excess of oxy- 
gen pass out 
when the plant is making food. (Fig. 21.) Some water 
escapes through these openings, or stomata (singular, 
stoma); but at night, when the. food-making processes 
are not going on, these stomata close up, so that 
much less water escapes. 

47a. To get an idea of how well the epidermis protects the 




Fig. 21. How the young plant gets its food. In the early 
stages it is nourished from the store of food in the 
cotyledons. When the green leaves unfold to the 
light they absorb the energy of the sunlight and 
cause the water to combine with the carbon dioxid 
of the air to form starches and other foods. 



30 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

plant, take an apple or potato and peel off the epidermis and place 
in an exposed place beside an unpeeled specimen Note how quickly 
the peeled specimen will shrivel and dry, while the other retains its 
form. 

48. Carbon Assimilation. The soft tissue between the 
upper and the lower epidermis is the real food factory 
of the plant. It is composed of several layers of cells, 
all arranged sponge-like, so that the carbon dioxid 
of the air can reach every cell. All these cells contain 
minute green bodies, called chloroplastids (chlo-ro- 
plast-ids). The green coloring matter in these bodies 
is formed only in the light. It does not form in leaves 
growing in the dark. The yellowish stems of potatoes 
growing in dark cellars is a familiar example. The green 
color will disappear if plants are kept from the light. 
Advantage is taken of this property in "blanching''' 
celery. When the light shines on the leaves, the chloro- 
phyll absorbs the energy of the sun's rays and forms 
the starches, sugars, etc., from the water and carbon 
dioxid. This process goes on through all daylight hours. 
(1) Light, (2) living cell xvith (3) chlorophyll, (4) water 
and (5) carbon dioxid rnust all be present. This explains 
why plants do not grow unless they get plenty of sun- 
light. This process of making plant substance under 
the influence of sunlight is called "carbon assimilation." 
It is not confined to the leaves, but takes place in any 
green cell when the other conditions exist. (See Figs. 
20 and 21.) 

49. How Green Plants Purify the Air. When carbon 
dioxid combines with water, the excess of free oxygen 
of the carbon compound escapes into the air. By this 
means, growing green plants purify the air. They take 
up the carbon dioxid given off from the lungs, or that 



How the Plant Increases Its Substance 31 

formed by burning of plant or animal bodies, and retain 
the carbon, the oxygen being set free. But this oxygen- 
izing power of plants is much less than is generally 
supposed; for the respiratory process of plants, giving 
out carbon dioxid partially counteracts the effect of 
the assimilative process. Carbon assimilation does not 
take place rapidly in a subdued light, such as exists 
in an inclosed room. 

50. Importance of Carbon Assimilation. With one 
or two minor exceptions, this process of food-making 
is the only known means of increasing the supply of 
food for both plants and animals. We can now answer 
the question asked in ^ 38. By this process the corn 
plant is able to reproduce itself many fold and, also, 
" tall oaks from little acorns grow." No animal has 
this power to form food substances from the simpler 
compounds. It is plain, therefore, that the farmer's 
stock, and indeed all Ufe, is dependent upon plant life 
for food. More than one-half of everything grown on 
the farm is carbon drawn from the air. 

QUESTIONS 

1. Why are most leaves flat? 2. Describe the layers in a leaf. 
3. Which layer manufactures food? 4. Describe carefully how the 
carbon of the air gets into the leaf. 5. Is light necessary for the 
formation of the green color in leaves? 6. What is the effect of 
continued darkness on green plants? 7. Name the five necessary 
conditions for the making of plant substance. 8. Discuss the 
importance of food-making by plants. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE WATER IN PLANTS 

51. Why Plants Need Water. Plants use water in 
three essential ways: (1) It combines directly with 
carbon dioxid to form plant substance; (2) it acts as 
a solvent for the minerals absorbed from the soil; (3) it 
serves to make the plant rigid. Young, succulent stems 
are dependent on water for their rigidity. If water 
escapes, they wilt and lose the power of carrying on 
their work. Water is necessary for plants in other 
ways. It is present in all parts. 

52. The Movement of Water within the Plant. There 
are special channels for conducting the water from the 
roots to the stems and leaves. The water is absorbed 
by the roots and is transported in special water-conduct- 
ing vessels through the stem and leaves. These chan- 
nels may be easily marked by placing the soft stem of 
some plant in a glass of blueing or of diluted red ink. 
The coloring matter will be carried along with the water 
and the path through which it moves will be shown. 
This experiment should be made and closely observed 
by all. Cut cross-sections of the stem to notice the 
channels through which the water travels. Leafy stems 
of balsam, begonia, Johnson grass, poke-berry, and 
other common plants, make good illustrations. 

53. The Amount of Water in Plant Substance is con- 
siderable, as may be seen from the following table show- 
ing the approximate amount of water in a number of 
common plants. 

(32) 



The Water in Plants 



33 



Approximate Amount op Water in Plants 



Alfalfa 

Prairie Hay. . . 
Corn Stalks . . . 
Potato Tubers 
Corn Grain . . . 

Turnips 

Grain straw. . . 
Small grains . . 



In fresh plants — 
water in 100 lbs. 



Average 

72 
70 
82 
75 

"gi" 



In air-dry plants — 
water in 100 lbs. 



Average 

8.4 

3Q.0 

34.0 

10.6 

'9.6 
9 to 12 



53a. How many pounds of water in a ton of freshly cut alfalfa? 
How many pounds of water in a ton of air-dry, or cured alfalfa? 

54. Loss of Water by Plants. Plants lose water through 
the stomata in their leaves, and their other parts to a 
slight extent. Some plants lose water very slowly, even 
under very dry conditions, as, for instance, the cactus 
on the dry, open prairies. It has been estimated that 
ordinary cultivated plants lose water by transpiration 
about one-fifth to one-tenth as ^ast as it would evapo- 
rate from a surface of free water. In times of drought, 
when the air is very dry, transpiration will be greater 
than under ordinary conditions. Hot, dry winds in- 
crease the rate at which water escapes from the plant. 
(See Tf 98, How Plants Dry the Soil.) 

55. Drought-resistant Varieties of cultivated plants 
have coverings that prevent the ready escape of water. 
This may be seen in the varieties of corn imported 
from dry countries, which have thicker leaves and 
coarser shucks than the native kinds. 

QUESTIONS 

1. In what three ways do plants use water? 2. How does the 
plant get water? 3. How does the plant lose water? 4. How do 
drought-resisting plants prevent the escape of water? 



CHAPTER VIII 



STRUCTURE AND WORK OF STEMS 




56. The Primary Use of the Stem is to hold the leaves 
up where they may be fully exposed to the light. Sun- 
light furnishes the energy for the food-making work. 
Of course, when the leaves are more exposed to /^. 
the light and winds, evaporation is increased. HI 
Therefore, stemmed plants need more water than |||[[P||[ 
stemless ones. 

57. The Growing Point of the Stem 
is in the bud at the end. The cells at 
the growing tip are very small and 
delicate. The young sections, or inter- 
nodes,* grow in length, forming the 
stem. The stem length- 
ens by the multiplica- 
tion and growth of the 
cells. All the cells are 
much alike at first, but, 
as the cells lengthen, so 
does the stem. Many 
changes take place. 
Soon there are several 
kinds of cells and ves- 
sels, as shown in Fig. 22. 
Some are elongated, 




e d / y g hi 



!. Cross-section of a woody stem. 
Upper one actual size, a, pith; b, d and 
e, water ducts; c, woody portion; f, 
phloem; g, h, and i, outer protective 
layers. After Goodale. 

*The use of the words nodes and intemodes is made necessary by the double 
use of the word "joint. ' 

(34) 



Structure and Work of Stems 



35 



thick-walled, woody fibers, arranged with 
overlapping ends cemented together, thus 
stiffening the stem. The water-conducting 
vessels are surrounded by these woody 
fibers. In some grasses and grass-like 
plants, the water vessels and wood fibers 
are united into strands forming the 
"threads," or fibro - vascular bundles, 
embedded in a mass of soft pithy tissue. 
This condition is well illustrated in the 
stalks of corn. The strands (Fig. 23) in 
the pith are bundles of woody fibers sur- 
rounding the water-conducting channels. 
Plants having the veins of the leaves 
arranged like a net have the water-con- 
ducting vessels in the woody part. (Fig. 
22.) In young stems they exist as separate 




Fig. 23. Corn- 
stalk, showing 
fibro- vascular 
bundles, or 
" threads." 




Fig. 24. Cross-section (B) and longi-section (A) of stem, greatly magnified. 
P, pith; d, d, water ducts; to, medullary rays; w, woody portion of stem; 
c, delicate cambium or growing cells; s, phloem of food-conducting cells; b, 
hard fibers; ck, cortex; e, epidermis. 



36 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



bundles, but with age become so numerous that they 
unite to form the sohd woody portion of the stem. 
Outside of this woody region is a layer of very thin- 
walled cells that are actively dividing and growing. 
This is the cambium layer. (Fig. 24c.) 

58. Cambium. The cambium is the region of active 
growth in the stem of plants with netted veined leaves. 
It causes the stem to increase in diameter by adding 
layers of cells each season, forming the annular rings. 

(Fig. 25.) The 
e3&E:i!J3^5a cambium cells on 
the inner side be- 
come wood cells 
and water ducts, 
while the cells on 
the outside are 
gradually trans- 
formed into the 
food - conduct- 
ing channels, or 
phloem, just under the bark. The increasing thicken- 
ing of the stem breaks the outer bark in long, vertical 
slits, and new bark is formed below. 

59. "Wounds made by pruning, gnawing of rabbits, 
breaking of branches, and other agencies, are often 
healed over by the growth of the cells of the cambium. 
Whenever the cambium cells form an extra growth in 
this way, it is called callus. Where large limbs are 
removed, it takes several years for the callus to grow 
over the wound. When trees are pruned, the exposed 
part should be heavily painted, to protect it till the 
callus can have time to grow over entirely. (See Tl 186, 
How to Make the Cuts in Pruning.) 




Fig. 25. Cross-section of an oak stem, showing 
the "annular" rings at J, which mark the 
close of the growing season. 



Structure and Work of Stems 



37 



60. The Phloem Portion of the Stem is important, 
because it is the channel through which the food sub- 
stances are carried from the leaves to the roots. The 
water moves up through the woody portion, but the 
food material moves in 
the phloem part of the 
stem. When land is cleared 
of large trees, the stumps 
will continue to form water 
sprouts for a long time, 
unless the trees are first 
"deadened." This is done 
by cutting off the bark 
entirely around the trunk 
of the tree, thus leaving a 
strip or girdle of the wood 
exposed. This does not 
cause the immediate death 
of the tree, because water 
can move up to the leaves 
through the stems, 
as before. How- 
ever, no food can 
pass down to the 
roots, and they 
finally die of star- 
vation. When the 
roots die, water is no longer absorbed, as the living 
root -hairs are gone. Girdling kills trees by starving 
the roots. (Fig. 26.) 

61. Roots May Die without Girdling. When fruit 
trees overbear, nearly all the food formed in the leaves 
goes to mature the fruit, and not enough goes down to 




SOLUBLE 5UB5TA/VCE5'' 

Fig. 26. Diagram to show the path of move- 
ment of water and reserve food substances in 
stemmed plants. 



38 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

nourish the roots, hence the trees often die early in 
the following spring. Sometimes a severe drought pre- 
vents the trees from forming sufficient food, or insects, 
fungous diseases, or storms destroy all the leaves. All 
the reserve food is used up in an effort to form new 
leaves, and the roots die of starvation. Transplanted 
trees that fail to make a good growth often die at the 
beginning of the second spring, because of the exhaustion 
of their reserve food. 

62. Perennial Weeds and sprouts from stumps may 
be killed by constantly destroying all leaf growth. Even 
though it does not kill them completely the first season, 
it may weaken them to such an extent that they may 
be more easily killed by other means. If allowed to 
grow to considerable size, the roots will receive food 
materials sufficient to start vigorous new growth. 

63. Grasses and Weeds, like Johnson grass, that 
form thick rootstocks are difficult to 'destroy. They 
may be killed much more easily if they are kept grazed 
down, so that the leaves do not have a chance to form 
a store of reserve food for rootstocks. The half- 
starved rootstock is much more easily killed than the 
fully nourished one. Roots and other parts of plants, 
when 'Doorly nourished, are more easily killed by ex- 
posure to cold, heat or drought. Hence, if such root- 
stocks are prevented from forming leaves they may 
die more quickly when exposed by plowing. 

63a. Make a list of the common weeds found in the fields, 
orchards and gardens, in the community. Make a classified list, 
putting all that come up from seed and mature a crop of seeds 
before the middle of the summer [spring annuals] in one column ; 
all that do not form seeds until late summer or fall [annuals] in a 
second column ; and in a third column name all that live over win- 
ter by underground roots, stems or root-stocks. 



Structure and Work of Stems 39 

64. The Storage of Reserve Food. Annual plants use 
their food supplies as fast as formed, in developing the 
shoots and roots, and, particularly, in forming flowers 
and fruits. Some plants, like turnips, cabbage, radish, 
etc., store the surplus food in the stem, leaves or roots 
during the first season, and use it during the next season 
to nourish a large crop of seeds. If grown in warm cli- 
mates, these plants will complete the cycle in one sea- 
son. In plants that live from year to year (perennials), 
food is stored up in the stems and roots, to supply the 
needs of the dormant season, and also to form the new 
crop of root-hairs, leaves and flowers in the following 
spring. It is the reserve food in the stems that makes 
the callus and new roots in cuttings of roses, privet, 
grape, etc. (See, also, ^ 159.) 

QUESTIONS 

1. Where is the growing point of the stem? 2. What changes 
take place as the stem lengthens? 3. What is the difference in the 
arrangement of wood fibers and water vessels in the corn stalk 
and in plants with netted- veined leaves? 4. Where is the cambium, 
and what is its work? 5. How are the wounds on plants healed? 
6. What is the position and use of the phloem layer? 7. Why are 
trees girdled? 8. How else may the roots of a tree be starved to 
death? 9. How may perennial weeds be killed? 10. How may 
Johnson grass be killed? 11. What are the uses of reserve food? 



CHAPTER IX 
THE PLANT AS RELATED TO THE SOIL 

65. The Welfare of Plants is dependent on the nature 
of their surroundings. In cultivation, the effort is to 
nriake and keep the environment favorable. In open- 
field culture, little can be done to change the air, the 
temperature, or the amount of Hght. While the diffi- 
culty 01 changing the environment of the plant above 
ground is great, much may be done to control the en- 
vironment under the ground. The fertihty of the soil, 
the amount of water, the temperature, the supply of 
air, and other conditions affecting the growth of the 
root, may be readily changed. A knowledge, then, of 
the habits and needs of roots, and of how to make the 
soil conditions favorable, will be very practical infor- 
mation. 

66, Uses of the Soil to Plants, (a) Serves as a foot- 
hold. The roots enter the soil and act as braces to keep 
the plant in the proper position. Plants with long stems 
and heavy foliage must have strong roots to enable 
them to withstand the action of the winds and other 
forces that would displace them. 

(b) Supplies the plant with important mineral foods. 
The amount of food which the plant takes from the soil 
is small, as has already been seen, only about 5 per 
cent of its dry weight; yet, small as it is, these mineral 
foods are absolutely necessary. 

(c) The soil acts as a storehouse for water. The plant 

(40) 



The Plant as Related to the Soil 



41 



must have a continuous supply of water. The soil is 
able to store up water in the tiny spaces that separate 
its particles. The roots penetrate the soil and take up 
this water as the plant needs it. Plants can not take 
up soUd food. All food substances must be dissolved 
before they can be 
absorbed. Hence, 
water is important, 
not only as a food, 
but also as a sol- 
vent for the particles 
of soil. The solutions 
pass through the thin, 
delicate membranes 
(cell-walls) of the cells 
(the root -hairs) by a 
process known as 
osmosis. 

(d) It retains and 
regulates the tempera 
ture. 

66a. Absorption of 
Water by Roots Illustrated. 
The upward movement of 
water absorbed by plants 
may be easjily illustrated 
in various ways A good 
way is to cover the end 
of a lamp chimney with 
parchment paper, as shown 
in Fig. 27; then fill one- 
fourth full with syrup. Support the chimney in a vessel of water, 
with the syrup at the level of the water After a time, it will be 
found higher, due to the absorption of water through the membrane. 
It acts like a large root-hair, which absorbs water from the soil 
and forces it upward mto the stems and leaves. The water would 




Fig. 27. To illustrate the absorption of 
water by roots. The plant absorbs 
wator against the force of gravity. So 
will a salt solution. 



42 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

not be absorbed unless the chimney contained the sugary syrup 
or some similar substance. It will be recalled that syrup is boiled- 
down sap from cane plants. 

A solution of salt in the chimney would cause the water to be 
absorbed in the same way as the syrup, because salt, like sugar, 
makes the solution stronger and denser. Where two liquids are 
separated by a membrane, more water always goes through into 
the stronger solution. The bulk of the liquid in the chimney is thus 
increased, and is forced higher in the chimney. 

67. Conditions Favorable for Root Growth. Not all 

plants require the same conditions for perfect develop- 
ment. All require some degree of moisture. Some 
plants do best when their roots are totally submerged 
in water, as the water-lily. Some land plants will grow 
with their roots in water, though they do best when 
the roots are in soil that contains plenty of air as well 
as water. When roots grow in a moist and very fertile 
soil, they are short, but have hundreds of little branches. 
This gives them a large absorptive surface, enabling 
them to readily take up the water and mineral food. 
When the soil is poor, or insufficiently supplied with 
moisture, the roots grow long and slender and have 
few branches. This does not mean, as some suppose, 
that the roots are " searching for food." When in a 
fertile soil, roots multiply rapidly, because they are 
well nourished. When in a poor soil, where the mineral 
food and water are insufficient, the leaves are unable 
to supply the roots with enough sugar^ oils, proteids, 
etc., to make the roots multiply and grow rapidly. 
It has already been observed that roots will not grow 
vigorously when the oxygen of the air is excluded. Plenty 
of air is necessary for vigorous growth. 

67a. To Show that Air is Necessary for Root Growth, use two 
jars, one filled with well-water, as shown in Fig. 28, and the other 



The Plant as Related to the Soil 



43 




with freshly boiled well-water. The water should be boiled to drive 
out all the oxygen, and a layer of cooking oil used to prevent more 
being absorbed from the air. Insert cuttings of willow or Wander- 
ing Jew, and keep in a warm place for a week or more. Note the 
time when the rootlets appear on the cuttings. 

68. Moisture Promotes Root 
Growth on Stems. A continu- 
ous supply of moisture stimu- 
lates root growth. Portions of 
stems kept in contact with moist 
soil for some time develop roots, 
as is often noticed in fallen corn 
stalks, tomato vines, and pota- 
toes. To make roots develop on 
cuttings of roses, figs, grapes, 
etc., we bury them in moist 
sand, loam, or sawdust. (See 
^194, Layerage.) 

69. The Ideal Soil for cultivated plants is one having 
an abundant supply of moisture, containing plenty of 
soluble plant food, and so porous that air can circulate 
freely and come in contact with the roots. The soil 
may be too dense, or so compact that the air and water 
cannot circulate. It may be too wet, — that is, have so 
much water that all the air is forced out. In very wet 
weather, the roots are often noticed growing out of the 
surface of the ground. 

70. Improving the Tilth of the Soil. We have already 
learned that the particles of the soil should be suffi- 
ciently fine for the root-hairs to grow between them. 
The particles may be so fine and so run together that 
neither the air nor the root-hairs can enter the soil. 
This condition is just as unfavorable for the roots as 
the coarse, lumpy soil. The texture, or physical con- 



FiG. 28. To show that roots need 
air. See Paragraph 67a. From 
First Book on Farming. See Ap- 
pendix A. 



44 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

dition, of the soil in either case would have less water- 
storage space, and be less liable to set free liberal supplies 
of plant food. Some soils are so porous and loose that 
the moisture drains away, and the air circulates so freely 
that they dry out too rapidly. 

71. Capillary Attraction is that force which causes 
water to rise in tubes or between particles of solid 
substances. The narrower the tube the higher will the 
liquid rise against the force of gravity. Fine-grained 
soils having smaller pores or spaces between their par- 
ticles than coarse-grained soils, will Uft water from 
below nearer to the surface than will coarse-grained 
soils. They will also hold more moisture in satura- 
tion than coarse soils, hence, are generally the bet- 
ter. Therefore, thorough tillage of the soil is bene- 
ficial. 

72. The Problem in Soil Management is to bring the 
soil to an ideal condition for the healthy growth of the 
roots. Some soils must have the particles made finer, 
and some must be made coarser by causing the finer 
particles to combine. 

73. How to Improve the Texture. Good texture is 
•important and dependent on the size of the soil par- 
ticles. In soil treatment the object, then, is to find the 
best means of modifying the size of the particles until 
the soil is mellow and friable. There are three general 
ways of changing the texture of the soil' 

(a) By applying mechanical force, as in the opera- 
tions of spading, plowing, harrowing, etc. This acts 
directly to make the particles finer. If heavy clays 
or black waxy land are tilled while wet, the particles 
are forced closer together, and we say the soil is " pud- 
dled." This is a brickmaker's term. In making brick, 



The Plant as Related to the Soil 



45 



the first effort is to destroy the granular texture, which 
is done by wetting and working the clay. Puddled 
clays do not crumble when dried before baking. Neither 
will a soil puddled by plowing when too wet crumble 
into fine particles in drying. (See T[ 105 and Fig. 40.) 

(b) By exposing the soil to the weathering influences 
of the air, frost, sun, snow, 
etc. When a lump or clod of 
stiff soil is left exposed to 
the alternate wetting of the 
rain and drying of the sun, 
it breaks up into many smaller 
particles and becomes mel- 
low. Without this weather- 
ing effect, much of our plow- 
ing would be worse than 
useless. The land often breaks 
up cloddy, but in time it 
becomes mellow and loose. 
(Fig. 29.) It requires time. 
In order that a soil may be 
in the best condition for seed- 
ing, plowing should be done 
long before planting time so 
that the weathering influences 
may have ample time to per- 
form their work thoroughly. 
Some soils will weather or 
crumble promptly, while 
others, Hke clay, require more time. Under this head 
should be included some of the effects following under- 
drainage. (See Fig. 41.) The surplus water is thus carried 
off and air takes its place, and the soil particles crumble. 




Fig 29. Waiting for time and the 
rains to mellow down the clods. 



46 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

(c) By applying substances which act chemically 
or physically upon the particles. These are called amend- 
ments, or indirect fertilizers. Lime is a familiar example. 
It renders many stiff clay soils mellow, and cements or 
binds together the particles of a sandy soil. Fertilizers 
are also amendments, because they act to modify the 
texture of the soil as well as to supply mineral plant 
food. Evidence is not wanting that the good effects of a 
fertilizer are sometimes much greater than the amount 
of mineral food supplied would allow us to expect. This 
is probably due to the effect of the fertilizer on the 
texture of the soil particles. It is especially true of 
composts, for they serve not only to supply plant food, 
but also to improve the texture of the soil. 

74. The Texture of the Soil affects the yield of crops 
to a striking degree. To improve the texture is often 
equivalent to an application of a fertilizer. One farmer 
will raise as much on twenty-five acres as another will 
raise on forty acres. A gardener will raise as large a 
plant in a small pot of soil as a farmer does in a yard 
of soil. It seems that the surface exposed to the action 
of the root-hairs in the pot of soil may be equal to the 
yard of imperfectly prepared soil in the field. 

75. A Soil is in Good Tilth when the particles are small 
enough for all the root-hairs to find a surface upon which 
they may act. A soil in good tilth exposes a large sur- 
face to the slow action of water, air and roots. (Fig. 30.) 
A coarse, lumpy soil may contain an abundance of plant 
food, but still make poor crops. If we take a cube and cut 
it into halves, we increase the surface exposed by one-third; 
we add two sides. By dividing again, we increase the 
surface in the same ratio. It will be seen that a lump of 
soil, when sufficiently fined to be in good tilth, exposes a 



The Plant as Related to the Soil 



47 




large surface to the action of the root-hairs. Professor 
King has figured out the result.* "Suppose we take a 
marble exactly one inch in diameter. It will just slip 
inside a cube one inch on a side, and will hold a film 
of water 3.1416 square inches in area. But reduce the 
marble to one-tenth of an inch and at least 1,000 of them 
will be required to fill the 
cubic inch, and their aggre- 
gate surface area will be 
31.416 square inches. If, 
however, the diameter of 
these spheres be reduced to 
one-hundredth of an inch, 
1,000,000 of them will be 
required to fill a cubic inch 
and their total surface area 
will be 314.16 square inches. 
Suppose, again, that the soil 
particles have a diameter of 
one-thousandth of an inch. 
It will then require 1,000,- 
000,000 of them to com- 
pletely fill the cubic inch and 
their aggregate surface area 
must measure 3141.59 square 
inches." All in one cubic 
inch of soil. When all the 
surfaces are moist, it is then 
perfectly plain why a fine soil will withstand more drought 
and give more root-feeding surface than a coarse soil. 

76. Root-Hairs Absorb Plant Food. Root-hairs absorb 
the water that covers the soil particles as thin films. 

*King, The Soil. 



jil in ,i,'(.)od tilth. 



48 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



They also take in some of the substances that are dis- 
solved in the soil moisture. Root-hairs give off carbonic 
acid gas and possibly other acids, which help to dissolve 
some substances in the soil. This may be easily demon- 
strated by allowing roots to grow on a polished marble 
slab. 

77. The Amount of Root Growth is large. A plant 
must have a large root surface to absorb enough water 
to make up for the loss from a large leaf surface. A large 
leaf surface is, of course, beneficial, because it means so 
much more surface for absorbing the carbon dioxid and 
energy from the sun's rays. There must, however, be a 
balance between the activities of the root surface and 
the leaf surface. 

78. The Distribution of Roots in the soil varies with 
the kind and condition of the soil, but, roughly, the 




Fig. 31. When trees are dug up, the large roots are found spreading ia the 
6rst few feet of soil. These roots had a spread of forty feet. 



The Plant as Related to the Soil 49 

roots are said to spread through an area equal to that 
shaded by the branches. Only in exceptional conditions 
do the roots extend very deeply into the soil. Even in 
forest trees, the most vigorous roots are found in the 
first foot or two of soil. In young trees, the tap-root 
is often noticed to grow directly down for some distance, 
but, when the trees are old, the side roots will be found 
to be many times larger, (See Fig. 31.) 

79. The Total Length of the Roots is very great. Hell- 
riegel* noted that a vigorous barley plant in a rich porous 
garden soil had one hundred and twenty-eight feet of 
roots, while another growing in coarse-grained, compact 
soil had only eighty feet of roots. One-fortieth of a cubic 
foot sufficed for these roots. It may be readily under 
stood that all the soil was occupied. Professor Clark, 
after making a number of measurements, estimated that 
a vigorous pumpkin vine had fifteen miles of roots and 
gained one thousand feet per day. Professor King, of 
the Wisconsin Experiment Station, estimates that if 
all the roots of a vigorous corn plant were put end- 
to-end they would measure more than one mile in 
length. 

80. The Vertical Distribution of Roots is affected 
to a large extent by the depth of the plow line, particu- 
larly so on stiff clay soils. The roots extend much deeper 
in dry seasons than in wet ones. These facts have been 
found out by carefully washing the soil away from the 
roots, leaving them supported on poultry netting. 
These observations are easily explained when we con- 
sider the effect of tillage on soil conditions. Fig. 32 

*Hennan Hellriegel (1831-1895) devoted his life to the study of the 
chemistry of plant nutrition. He was the first to discover the relation of the 
bacteria causing the tubercles on the roots of legumes to the fixation of free 
nitrogen. He made many other important discoveries in agricultural science. 



50 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



illustrates the appearance of the roots of a corn plant 
at silking time. 

81. Shall Crops be Tilled Deep or Shallow? It is im- 
portant that we know the distribution of the roots in 
the soils that are cultivated with plows; otherwise we 
might plow too deep and destroy many roots. At one 
of the agricultural experiment stations it was found 
that thirty days after planting corn, at the second 




Fig. 32. The root development of a corn plant just beginning to tassel. From 
Photo made at Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Illinois. 

cultivation, the roots from the adjacent hills (three feet 
apart) had already met. A few roots had reached a 
depth of twelve inches, but the bulk of the roots were 
within eight inches of the surface. Six inches from 
the hill, the main roots were within two or three inches 
of the surface. Midway between the drills they lay 
within four inches of the surface. Deep plowing at this 
time with shovel-pointed plows would certainly have 
injured many roots. 



The Plant as Related to the Soil 51 

82. The Condition of the Soil has great influence on 
the distribution of the roots. Where the surface layers 
are moist the roots will grow freely in these layers, but 
if dry spells come the plants will suffer more than plants 
that have been growing on soils less favorably supplied 
with moisture. This explains why it is best, in watering 
lawns, to give them a heavy drenching rather than a 
frequent sprinkling of the surface, so that the water 
will soak down into the deeper layers. 

83. Grass-like Plants are without tap-roots. They 
form a number of fine roots near the surface, and are 
hence known as "surface feeders." Other plants, like 
cotton, alfalfa, peanuts and beans, have strong tap-roots 
that branch out in the lower layers of soil, and are for 
this reason called "deep feeders." We must not conclude 
from this that the small grains do not have deep-feeding 
roots. Notwithstanding the small diameter of the root 
branches, some of them penetrate the soil much below 
the surface layers, as illustrated in Fig. 32. 

QUESTIONS 

1. What conditions of open-field culture are under our control? 
2. What are the uses of soil to a plant? 3. What kinds of roots 
grow in moist, fertile soils? 4. What kind in poor soil? 5. What is 
an ideal soil for plants? 6. What conditions of soil particles prevent 
the right supply of food? 7. What are the three general ways of 
changing the texture of the soil? 8. "\¥hen is a soil in good tilth? 

9. Why is it necessary for a plant to have a large root surface? 

10. What is the general rule as to the distribution of roots? 11. What 
is the effect of moisture on the downward distribution of roots? 

12. Shall crops be tilled deep or shallow? Discuss this question. 

13. Why are the grasses called surface feeders? 14. Explain how 
deep breaking of the soil makes a larger and better home for the 
roots. 



CHAPTER X 
SOILS AND SOIL MANAGEMENT 

84. From what we have learned, we recognize that 
the proper management of soils should be such as to: 

(a) Provide the plant with an adequate supply of 
available soil moisture at all times. 

(b) Put the soil in such tilth that the roots can find 
abundant supplies of the important soil nutrients. 

(c) Provide for the removal of the surplus water 
(drainage) that would fill up the air spaces and prevent 
the proper development of the roots. 

(d) Make the soil sufficiently loose so that the oxygen 
of the air and the water in the soil may circulate freely. 

85. Classification of Soils. Before we can intelli- 
gently discuss the problems of soil management we should 
learn more about the properties of the different kinds 
of soils. By "soil" we mean that layer of the earth's 
crust which is formed from finely broken-up rocks and 
decayed plants and animal remains. Soils are variously 
classified according to origin*, method of formation, 
chemical composition, physical properties, or adaptations 
to kinds of crops. Jt will be advisable for us first to 
learn more of the properties of the substances that 
compose the various kinds of soils. 

88. Origin of Soils. The geologist classifies soils 
according to their origin and conditions of formation. 
He tells us that all soils have been formed by the gradual 
breaking up of rocks. Fig. 3^ shows a mountain of rock 

*See chapters on Erosion in any text-book on geology or physical geography. 
(52) 



Soils and Soil Management 



53 



being slowly but surely converted into soil. The large 
boulders break and fall from the cliffs, and by the weath- 
ing of the rains, frosts and other agencies, they are 
worn away. The finer particles are washed down the 
hillsides into the valley below, forming the rich valley 
soil. Soils formed in this way by the deposit of the 
sediment from running water are called sedimentary 
soils. In some cases the rocks break up and are not 




Fig. 33. Soil formation. Rain, frost and plants all assist in changing the moun- 
tains of rock into soil. After Hill. United States Geological Survey. 



54 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

removed by flowing water. Such soils are referred 
to as residual soils. 

86a. Weigh a fruit jar and fill with the muddy water flowing 
from the field after a heavy rain. Let stand until the water is clear, 
and note the amount of soil in the bottom of the jar. 

86b. Weigh the jar again, pour off the clear water, leaving the 
thick sediment. Dry and weigh the sediment, and calculate the 
per cent of sediment in the muddy water. 

87. Other Classifications. A convenient and natural 
classification of soils is often made according to the 
color, texture and structure of the soil layers. We com- 
monly speak of a soil as consisting of a surface soil and 
a subsoil. 

The surface soil includes the top layer of soil — "that 
which is moistened by the rains, warmed by the sun, 
permeated by the atmosphere, in which the plant ex- 
tends its roots, gathers its soil-food, and which, by the 
decay of the subterranean organs of vegetation, ac- 
quires a content of humus." The surface soil may be 
subdivided further into surface soil and sub-surface soil; 
the surface soil proper, or soil mulch, includes the layer 
of top soil that is moved about by the ordinary operations 
of tillage; and the sub -surface soil refers to the layer 
of surface soil that is just beneath the soil mulch, thus 
being a part of the surface soil and yet is not stirred 
by ordinary inter-tillage. 

The subsoil is the layer just below the surface soil, 
and in all soils it is taken to mean the second layer, 
showing characteristic differences from the surface 
soil. Sometimes the subsoil, or a layer just beneath the 
top layer of the subsoil, may consist of a hard, stiff layer 
of clay or other compacted material, impermeable to 
water and air. This is spoken of as hard-pan. It is often 
absent altogether, or it may be at various depths. It 



Soils and Soil Management 55 

may be considered as a condition of the subsoil ratlier 
than as a different material, where it is composed 
of the same material as the subsoil. 

88, Sand. Sand is broken-up fragments of a mineral 
called quartz, or flint. It often occurs mixed with con- 
siderable quantities of coarse gravel. Pure white sand 
is almost valueless for agricultural purposes, because it 
supplies no needed mineral element. However, it rarely 
occurs pure, but mixed with other minerals that supply 
plant food. Sandy soils are usually classed as "light" 
soils because of the light draft in plowing. They are in 
reality very heavy, for a cubic foot of air-dry sand will 
weigh over a hundred pounds, whereas an equal quan- 
tity of clay will weigh only about eighty pounds. The 
grains of sand are rounded, and so there are spaces be- 
tween them. This allows water and gases to move easily 
through sandy soils. Because of their open nature, sandy 
soils readily take in large quantities of water. For the 
same reason, they allow it to drain off or evaporate 
quickly. Sandy soils are usually drier and better aerated, 
and will, for this reason, warm up sooner than other 
soils and are, hence, preferred for growing early vege- 
tables. 

89. Clay, in an agricultural sense, includes any soil 
composed largely of very fine particles, which gives the 
land a close, compact, adhesive nature. Clay, as used 
by chemists and potters, refers to the disintegrated mass 
of certain kinds of rocks. The several kinds of clay soils 
vary widely in chemical composition, physical proper- 
ties, and fertility. Usually, however, clay soils are very 
productive. Clay has the property of absorbing large 
quantities of water, often as much as from 50 to 75 
per cent of its own weight. Even the dry clay road 



56 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

dust may have as much as 10 per cent of water. When 
wet, clays become sticky and impervious to water and 
air, and, of course, root growth cannot take place when 
the soil is in this condition. If kneaded or puddled by 
working at this time, it does not crumble on drying. 
Clay particles have a tendency to cling together in small 
lumps, or floccules, especially if lime is present. This 
makes them more open and porous, and lightens the 
draft in plowing. Water evaporates slowly from clay 
soils.* 

90. Calcareous, or Limy Soils. Many fertile soils 
contain large quantities of crumbled limestone (car- 
bonate of calcium). The presence of lime in a soil may 
be easily detected by the effervescence (giving off of 
gas) when treated with acids. Strong vinegar will 
answer. Try it on some lumps of soil. Finely pul- 
verized limestone has physical properties similar to 
clay. Lime tends to improve clay soils by making 
them more granular and porous. Lime also acts bene- 
ficially on sandy soils by increasing their water-hold- 
ing power. The fertile black lands of Texas contain 
from 5 to 40 per cent of carbonate of lime. Soils low 
in lime often become sour or acid, (^I 141.) 

90a. Effect of Lime on Clay Soils. Take about three pounds of 
stiff clay soil and work into a soft plastic mass by wetting and 
kneading. Divide into three equal parts. Round one into a ball 
and put on a board. Work the second up with an equal volume of 
air-slaked lime, and the third with half as much air-slaked lime. 
Put all three on a board and let dry. Describe the results. What 
is the effect of the lime on clay soils? 

90b. Effect of Lime on Clay Particles. Clay settles slowly in water. 
The particles are so fine that they float in water like dust in the air. 
Rub up some clay in water until the water is turbid. Pour a little 

*Are the clay soils of your community classed as drought-resistant soils? 



Soils and Soil Management 57 

of this turbid water into lime water.* WTiat happens to the particles 
of clay suspended in the water? 

91. Humus is the term applied to partly decayed 
plant and animal remains, and is well illustrated by 
the leaf-mold found under the trees in a dense forest. 
Humus gives to the soil a characteristic blackish color, 
and adds greatly to its fertility It improves the 
water-holding power in a noticeable degree, often 
to double the original water-storing power. It makes 
clay soils mellow and sandy soils compact. Humus is 
formed by the decay of the roots, leaves, etc., in virgin 
soils. The farmer is able to increase the humus in the 
soil by adding compost directly, and by plowing under 
straw and green crops, like cow-peas, etc. (See 1(131, 
Green Manuring.) 

92. Examination of Soils.f An experimental study 
of the several kinds of soils, especially of those occurring 
in the school district, should be made, and, if a sufficient 
number of different kinds are not close at hand, others 
may be secured. These various kinds of soil consist of 
mixtures of varying amounts of sand, clay, limestone 
dust, and half-decayed plant remains. The fertility and 
water-holding power will bear some relation to the 
amounts of these separate substances composing the 
soil. 

*To prepare lime water, secure a large-mouthed bottle or fruit jar. Fill 
half-full with water. Add lime, a little at a time, until a good handful is used. 
Cork securely, to keep out the air, and let stand. The lime will settle to the 
bottom and the clear liquid above is lime water. 

tThe direct examination of the samples of soil, as outlined in this chapter, 
may be conducted by any boy or girl with little or no assistance from the teacher. 
A word of caution may be given to the student. He should be reasonably 
familiar with the theory of the work he is to undertake, and what questions his 
results may answer. Too often he will want to say that he is "going to prove" 
so and so. He should be cautiorued to " find out" if so and so is true or not true 
This is the attitude of the true student. 



58 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 






¥0/9 i7S9 ' /S/O 






^ 



C3 



01 006 006- CCCI 



Diameter of fhe groms in miHimelers 



93. Size of Soil Particles. In recent studies on Ameri- 
can soils, much attention has been given to the deter- 
mination of the size of the particles in good agricul- 
tural soils. Fig. 34 
shows how two soils 
may differ in this 
respect. In noting 
the size of the soil 
particles, we should 
distinguish between 
the actual size of 
the minute particles 
or fragments of rocks 
and the soil fioccules, 
or granules formed 
by the sticking to- 
gether of a number of 
very small particles. 
93a, Examination to 
Observe the Size of the 
Soil Granules. Secure a 
half-dozen lumps of soil 
from the moist layers 
beneath the surface, and 
put into a fruit jar three- 
fourths full of water. 
Screw on the top and 
shake vigorously for 
some minutes, and allow 
to settle. Describe the layers formed after standing one hour or 
more Note the differences in size of the granules of the soil. Apply 
the same treatment to a handful of garden soil; to a sample of stiff 
clay soil. 

93b. Secure a good handful of soil and moisten and work till 
a very thin, even paste is formed. Place in a jar. as in *\ 92a, and 
shake. Allow to stand until the particles have all settled to the bot- 




Fig. 34. Showing the amounts of the particles 
of different size in two kinds of soils. From 
Bureau of Soils, United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 



Soils and Soil Management 



59 



toin. Observe the different layers. The coarse material at the bot- 
tom is probably sand. Above this will be a layer of finer particles 
consisting largely of clay, the finest particles of which remain in 
suspension in the water, making it turbid Small particles of vege- 
table matter may be found floating on the surface. The separation 
of the particles will be more complete if a small quantity of 
ammonia be added to the water. 

Estimate the amount of sand and clay in the samples. What 
effect did working the soil into a paste have on the size of the granules? 

Make similar tests with a number of different kinds of soils. 
Make a table as shown below, and record your observation for each 
sample of soil. 

93c. Classify the soils examined according to the following 
scheme. Estimate the amounts of the sand or clay. 



Kind of soil 



Sandy .... 
Sandy loam 

Loam 

Clay loam. . 
Clay 



Per cent 
of sand 
present 


Color 

of fresh 

soil 


Productive 
or unpro- 
ductive 


Drought 

resistant 

or not 


Heavy 

or light 

draft 


80-100 










60- 80 










40- 60 










20- 40 










0- 20 











Remarks 



93d. Weight of a Cubic Foot of Soil. It will not be necessary to 
use a full cubic foot. Small, rectangular boxes may be made and 
then carefully measured for their inside dimensions. The dirt 
may be put in these and weighed, and the results calculated to a 
cubic foot. Three-pound tomato cans, with the tops melted off, 
•may be used in the same way. The samples of soils should be 
thoroughly dry and free from coarse lumps. A sample of every 
type of soils in the community should be used. 

94. Temperature of Soils. Soils have the power of 
absorbing the heat from the sun's rays. If they absorb 
the heat readily they are called warm soils, and if slowly, 
cold soils. Dry soils get warm much more quickly than 
moist soils. Barefooted boys know that the dry sands 
and fine clay road dust become warm more quickly 
than moist soils. 



60 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



IS 

14' 
i* 
11' 
11' 






/ 


\ 










/ 




\ 








/ 




\ 








// 




\\ 




10 






/ 




\ 


\ 






/ 


/ 




\ 








i 








V 


7' 

6' 

I' 




r 










J 


V 























"SAM. 10AM. l2M.^eM.4BM. 6HM. 

Fig. 35. Temperature 
curves of dry and wet 
soils. 



The amount of water in the soil affects the tem- 
perature more than the kind of soil. Much heat is re- 
quired to warm and dry out wet 
soils. Most of the heat is consumed 
in evaporating the water. The 
evaporation of water from the soil 
may be compared to the evapo- 
ration of sweat from the body, 
because it cools the soil, just as 
evaporation cools the body 

The texture of the soil also 
affects the temperature. Coarse 
rocky or lumpy soils suffer from 
sudden changes in temperature. 
Loose and well- cultivated soils 
absorb and retain the sun's heat 
best; and the temperature in such soils is more uniform. 
The color of the soil affects the amount of heat 
absorbed from the sun's rays. Dark-colored bodies 
absorb the heat rays more readily than light ones. This 
explains why dark soils are warmer than light soils. 

While a compact soil will absorb heat more rapidly 
from the sun's rays than a loose one, it will also lose heat 
more quickly, because of the more rapid conduction 
of the heat to the surface, where it is lost by radiation. 
Moist soils warm up more slowly than dry ones, be- 
cause the heat is used up in warming and evaporating 
the water. (Fig. 35.) 

94a. Absorption of Heat from the Sun by Dry Soils. Air-dry 
soils should be put into uniform vessels Gardeners' fiats are 
quite suitable. Insert ordinary dairy thermometers into the soil for 
about two inches and note the temperature in each box. Put the 
box in strong sunlight and make readings at 8, 10, 12, 2. 4, and 
6 o'clock. Record the temperature as shown in Fig. 35. 



Soils and Soil Management 



61 



94b. Rate of Cooling of Dry Soils. The same boxes used in H 93a 
may be used. Note readings when placed in sunlight at 8, 10, and 
12. Then put in shade and note the temperature at 2, 4, and 6. 
Which kind of soil ci oled quickest? What soils retained the'r heat 
longer? Do the soils that warm quickly cool quickly? What soils 
would you class as "warm soils?" 

94c. Absorption of Heat by Moist Soils, Use same boxes of soils 
as above, but add same amount of water to each, and make 
readings when exposed to sunlight from 8 until 4. The cans or 
boxes should be weighed at the beginning, and, when through 
with the test in this experiment, weighed again for results in H 95a, 
noting loss of weight in each. 

94d. Loss of Heat by Moist Soils. As above in H 94b. The same 
boxes may be used. 

95. Soil Mulch. The rain falling on the surface 
causes the many fine lumps of soil to crumble and 
run together, and leaves the surface covered by a closely 
compacted layer or crust. This condition of the soil is 
very favorable for the rapid evaporation of the capillary 
water. When the surface becomes dry, the water below 
will move rapidly to the surface and the soil will soon 
become dry. The thrifty farmer destroys this crust 
just as soon as the surface layer can be harrowed or 
plowed. He thus destroys the close capillary connection 
formed between the surface and sub-surface soil. The soil 
mulch should be two or three inches thick. (Fig. 36.) 




Fig. 36. How cultiv^ation retards surface evaporation. The position of ground 
water after fifty-nine days, and the per cent of water in the soil at diilerent 
depths. The shaded plots were cultivated. After King. University of 
Wisconsin. 



62 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



95a. Rate of Loss of Water. Use three-pound tomato cans. 
Put equal volume of air-dry soil of different kinds in each, and add 
same amount of water to each. At 4 o'clock each day, note the 
amount of water lost from each kind of soil during four separate 
days, and calculate the per cent of total water lost for each day. 
Record the results as shown in the following table: 



Sandy soil . . . 
Clay soil .... 
Garden soil . 
Coarse gravel 



Weight at begin- 
ning 



End of 


End of 


End of 


End of 


first 


second third 


fourth 


day 


day 


day 


day 











Per 
cent 



95b. Rate of Rise of "Water Through Soils of Different Texture 

For this test, a number of ordinary lamp chimneys serve very well, 
because the results may be easily observed. These may be secured at 
stores. Select three samples of soil: one sand, one clay, and one a soil 
with much humus. Prepare two chimneys of each kind of soil, as fol- 
lows: Close the tops of the chimneys with muslin. In number one, 
let the soil particles drop lightly into the chimney and remain very 
loose. In number two, pour in a little at a time and press slightly 

with a stick. Do not 
try to make too com- 
pact, lest the chim- 
ney be broken. Put 
all the chimneys in a 
vessel of water, as 
shown in Fig. 37, 
and note the rise of 
the moisture every 
recess hour. 

What effect does 
compacting the soils 
have on the quick- 
ness with which they 

Fig. 37. To test the rise of water through soils of absorb water in sand? 
different te.xture. In clay? In humus? 




Soils and Soil Management 



63 



95c. Effect of Mulches on Evaporation of Water from Soils. 
Secure seven or eight three-pound tomato cans from which the 
tops have been carefully melted off to leave smooth rims. Fill 
three of the cans full to the upper edge with clean, dry sand or other 
soil. Fill the remaining ones within one inch of the top. Weigh 
the cans separately when dry, and add the 
same amount of water to each one and note the 
weight. Prepare the mulches as indicated below, 
and weigh again. Set in a convenient place 






Fig. 38. Consuming soil moisture. Loss in seven days: A, pacl<ed surface, 
8^ oz. water; B, fine chopped straw, 2 oz. water; C, covered with loose sand, 
1 oz. water; D, dust mulch, 3 oz. water; E, young oat plants, 10 oz. water. 

where they will all be exposed to the same conditions. Weigh 
daily for one week or ten days, and record the loss of weight for 
each can on the following table. The difference in loss will approxi- 
mate the power of these separate mulches to retard evapora- 
tion from the surface. Give all the cans the same exposure to 
light and wind. 

Effect of Mulches on Evaporation 







First day 


Second day 


Third day 


No. ot 
can 


Weight 


Loss 
of weight 


Weight 


Loss 
of weight 


Weight 


Loss 
of weight 


1 .. 

2 .. 

3 .. 

4 .. 

5 .. 

6 .. 

















64 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

1. Not muiched. (Check or control.) 

2. Surface cultivated one inch deep (soil mulch). 

3. Surface cultivated two inches deep (soil mulch). 

4. Mulch with one inch of coarse gravel. 

5. Mulch with one inch of sawdust. 

6. Mulch with one inch of fine sand. 

7. Mulch with one inch of fine cut straw. 
Which mulch is most effective? 

Which mulch is most practical under field conditions? 
What other conditions affect evaporation from the soil? 

96. Soil Moisture Retained by Cultivation. Professor 
King has investigated the efficiency of surface culti- 
vation in retaining water in the soil. A piece of fallow 
ground was divided into plots twelve feet wide, as shown 
in diagram in Fig. 36. Three were cultivated and two 
left fallow. The figures in the table show the percentage 
of water in the soil of each plot, at different depths, at 
the end of fifty-nine days. The average loss of water 
from the cultivated plots was 709.4 tons per acre, while 
in the non-cultivated plots the loss was 862.3 tons 
per acre. This makes the mean daily loss of water 
from the ground not cultivated 3.12 tons per acre 
greater than was that from the cultivated soil. This 
cultivation saved the equivalent of 7.9 inches rainfall. 
The soil mulch is a great protection against temporary 
drought. It saves the soil water for the plant to use in 
making food; whereas, if allowed to evaporate from the 
surface of the soil, it would be lost. The mulch should 
be renewed after every rain. It seems strange, but it is 
true, that a summer shower will destroy the mulch, and 
cause the land to dry out so much faster that the soil will 
contain less moisture after a few days than if it had not 
rained at all. Such a shower moistens only the surface, 
destroying the capillary spaces between the soil particles. 



Soils and Soil Management 65 

97. "Dry-land Farming." In some sections of the 
country where the rainfall is so light that the trees and, 
other large plants requiring large amounts of water, 
will not grow, the soil mulch has been found to be an 
excellent conserver of soil moisture. A. crop is grown 
only every other year. The fields are divided into 
two parts. One is planted in grain, and the other will 
be harrowed after each rain, or oftener, to form a mulch. 
In this way, the water is stored up one season for the 
next season's crop, and from twenty-five to fifty bushels 
of grain to the acre are harvested every other year. If 
a crop were grown every year on all the land, the yield 
would not average ten bushels per acre. 

98. How Plants Dry the Soil- Do plants take moisture 
from the soil faster than ordinary evaporation? To get 
an answer to this question, fill four tomato cans with a 
good garden loam. In one plant nothing; in another, 
forty or fifty grains of oats; in another, five or six grains 
of corn. Put an elder stem or hollow cane on the side 
of each so that the plants can be watered from the 
bottom. If we put water on the surface, a crust will 
form that will cause the water to evaporate much faster, 
(Do any of our experiments justify this statement?) 
Pour just enough water down the tube to make the 
soil reasonably moist, but not too wet. Set in a warm 
place, and, when the seedlings are half an inch high, 
weigh the cans and determine the loss of moisture in 
the usual way. Keep the cans in a place where the 
plants can get a good light, but not where the sun 
would heat the earth too much. Sum up your results 
at the end of the first week, and answer the questions 
given above. Likewise, at the end of the second week. 
Can you explain the bad effects of weeds in dry times. 



66 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

99. Absorptive Power of Soils. Soils have the power 
of absorbing many substances, particularly some that 
are valuable plant foods. Prepare two lamp chimneys as 
described in TI Oob^ and fill with good field or garden soil. 
Into one pour several ounces of water made deep blue 
with laundry blueing. Note the color of the water when it 
comes through the cloth below. Into the second chimney 
pour foul water made by leaching compost. Coloring 
matters or soluble salts like fertilizers, absorbed in this 
way (physical absorption), are merely held more firmly 
to the surface of the soil particles, so that they are not 
readily leached out by percolating waters. Mineral 
plant foods held in the soil in this way are available 
for absorption by the roots of plants. 

Wood ashes contain the salts left from the plant 
when the air-derived substances have been driven off 
by burning. It represents the valuable salts absorbed 
from the soil. Take some home-made lye and taste a 
drop on the end of a broom straw. Allow to filter through 
the soil as above and try the taste of the drippings. 
Has the soil absorbed any of the salts? 

QUESTIONS 

1. What are the ends to be worked for in soil management? 
2. What is meant by "soil?" How does a geologist classify soils? 
4. What is the farmer's classification of the layers of soils? 5. Name 
the four chief components of soils. 6. What are the advantages 
and disadvantages of a sandy soil? 7. Of a clay soil? 8. Of a hmy 
soil? 9. Of humus in soils? 10. What is the importance of the size 
of soil particles? 11. What do you understand by soil particles, and 
soil granules? 12. What does the farmer mean by heavy and light 
soils? 13. What kind of soil warms^up most quickly? 14. Why does 
the farmer harrow or plow up the crust formed by rains? 15. What 
is meant by dry-land farming? What is its advantage? Explain. 



CHAPTER XI 



WATER IN THE SOIL 



100. How the Water Exists in the Soil. From our ex- 
periments, we have noticed that the water in the soil 
may be classed as: 

(a) Free, or gravitational water, the water which flows 
under tlie influence of gravity and percolates down- 
ward. When the water collects below, we call it bottom, 
or ground, water, and the surface layer is called the 
water table. (See Figs. 36 and 41.) 

(b) Capillarij water is held in the capillary spaces or 
pores of the soil and is not influenced by gravity, but 
moves upward, or in any direction where the soil is 
becoming drier. It is held in 
the soil by the same force 
which causes the wdiole of a 
rag to become wet when one 
end is placed in water, or 
which causes oil to rise in the 
wick of a lamp. The amount 
of capillary water, that is, 
the water which the soil may 
retain against the influence 
of gravity, depends on the 
size and form of the soil 
particles, and several other 
conditions. 'Where there is 
only capillary water in the 
soil, there is, of course, some 

(67) 




Fig. 39. Diagram to illustrate how 
the soil particles are covered by 
capillary water. After Cameron. 



68 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



air space, because the capillary films will not be thick 
enough to fill the spaces between the grains, espe- 
cially if the soil is coarse grained. This is the condition 
most favorable to the growth of roots, because both 
water and air are present. (Fig. 39:) 

(c) Hygroscopic water is the film of water held on the 
surface of solid particles independent of capillary spaces. 
It is held more firmly to the grains than capillary water. 
Air-dry soil may still contain from one to ten per cent 
of hygroscopic water, — that is, water which may be 
driven off only by heating to the temperature of boiling. 
Clay soils, in particular, often contain large amounts of 
hygroscopic moisture. 

100a. Rate of Percolation of Water Through Soils. ^rep«»re lamp 
chimneys as in K 95b, filling them two-thirds full, using different 
kinds of soil. Quickly fill all the chimneys full to the top with water, 
and then notice the time required for water to begin dripping at 
the lower end. It will be well to place wide- mouthed bottles 
under each chimney to collect the drippings. In this way the amount 
of water percolating through the different soils may be estimated. 
Which would be preferable in field conditions, for the water to per- 
colate rapidly or slowly? Discuss this question. 



Soil 


Time required for first 

flow from bottom of 

chimney 


Amoiint of water passed 
througli chimney at end of 




First 
day 


Second 
day 


Third 
day 


1 

2 
3 











101. The Amount of Capillary Water which a soil may 
retain varies with the soil. This is a measure of the power 
of a soil to store up water. The following table, taken 
from Schubler*, who first investigated this property 

*See Johnson, How Crops Feed. 



Water in the Soil 



69 



of soils, shows that sandy soils retain water poorly and 
that humus may retain nearly double its weight in water. 





Maximum capillary 
water 


Water lost in four 
hours 


Pure sand 


Per cent 
25 
29 
40 
51 
61 
70 
85 
89 
181 


Per cent 

88.4 


Lime sand 


75.9 


Clay soil (60% clay) 

Loam 


52.0 
47.5 


Heavy clay (80% clay) . . . 

Pure gray clay 

Fine carbonate of lime .... 
Garden mold 


34.9 
31.9 
28.0 
24.3 


Humus 


25.5 







The second column shows the percentage of water 
that evaporated in four hours, when spread over a given 
surface. It is seen that soils having capacity for large 
amounts of capillary water part with it very slowly. 

102. What amount of water is most favorable to 
the growth of plants? This has been experimentally 
studied by Hellriegel, who found that oats, wheat, 
and rye growing in sand able to hold twenty-five per 
cent capillary water made maximum yield with fifteen 
to twenty per cent water. He observed that the plants 
would grow with no less vigor when the soil contained 
even only 2.5 per cent water. Below this the plants 
would wilt. It is not generally true that the most 
favorable amount of moisture for the growth of a plant 
is the full capillary power of the soil, as might be inferred 
from the above results. The results of some investi- 
gations of the United States Department of Agriculture 
show that p'ants might suffer for lack of water (drought 
hmit) when the soil contained 15 per cent moisture, 
while in other soils the plants were well supplied 



70 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

when the soil contained only 4 per cent moisture. In 
some soils 20 per cent moisture caused injury, while 
in others only 10 per cent moisture acted injuriously 
on the plants. These figures indicate approximate 
amounts only. While the range from the "dry" to "wet" 
seems narrow, it should be remembered that 1 per cent 
difference in water in the first foot of soil would amount to 
a rainfall of only about 0.41 inch for clay soil and 0.57 
inch for sand, allowing 80 pounds per cubic foot for clay 
soil and 110 pounds for sand. Water weighs 62.31 pounds 
per cubic foot. One inch of rainfall completely absorbed 
would increase the percentage of moisture about six 
per cent. 

103. In Irrigation it is important to know how much 
water to apply. Injurj^ may be done by applying too 
much water, besides causing undue expense in handling 
the water. 

103a. How much water should be applied to a sandy loam 
soil weighing 90 laounds per cubic .foot to raise the moisture from 
3% to 20%? 

104. What Becomes of the Rain? The average annual 
rainfall at Washington, D. C, is about forty-four inches; 
that is, in a year's time, the rain, snow, and sleet would 
be sufficient to cover the surface forty-four inches deep 
in water. In some parts of the United States the rain- 
fall is fifty inches, and in other sections only about 
fifteen. What becomes of this large amount of water? 
Some of it runs off into the creeks before it can be 
absorbed by the soil. This is called the "surface run-off," 
or simply surface water. This water is lost for the use 
of the plants. When the surface layers are hard and 
compact, the water can not be absorbed quickly, and 
may even flow off while the roots in the deeper layers are 



Water in the Soil 71 

suffering from a lack of moisture. If the fields were 
kept well plowed, more of this water would soak into 
the soil and could later be used by the plants when dry- 
times come. If more water soaks into the layer of tilled 
soil than it can retain by its capillary properties, it is 
absorbed by the sub-soil and may finally percolate 
down to the layer of rock or clay and flow off to form 
springs. It is much better for the farmer if the surface 
soil and the sub-soil are well supplied with water. The 
rains are usually not abundant in the season when they 
would be most beneficial in increasing the yield of the 



fli 



Fig. 40. Diagram to illustrate tlie effect of ideal plowing. The compactness of 
the soil is indicated by the density of the shading. Before plowing, there is a 
compact surface crust (.s), below which the soil grows less compact as we go 
deeper; after plowing, this compact mass is broken up into a loose, friable 
mass of soil-crumbs, or floccules, with a consequent increase in the bulk of 
tne furrow-slice (/s); compacted plow sole at pi. After Hilgard. 

crops. This fact suggests all the more strongly the im- 
portance of studying the ways that may be used to : 

1. Increase the ready absorption of the rainfall; 

2. Increase the water-storage power of the soil occu- 
pied by the roots (^j 100) ; 

3. Increase the efficiency of mulches in conserving 
the moisture for the use of the crops; 

4 Prevent injury to the fields by surface washing. 

105. The Water- Storage Power of the soil may be 
increased in two ways: (a) By deep breaking. This in- 
creases the pore space in the soil by making the granules 
of soil smaller. They, therefore, have more capillary 
space (Tl 75). Breaking should be done in the fall so that 



72 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 




9 ej JyT OJ 
■" »s o ^ 



the winter rains may be ab- 
sorbed, (b) By adding sub- 
stances to the soil that increase 
its water-holding power, such 
as compost and green manures 
(Tf 101). Increasing the water- 
storage power of the soil tends 
to lessen washing. The water 
"runs" after every little 
shower in the hard roadway, 
but in the well-plowed field 
the rain is soon absorbed and 
passes to the deeper layers 
of soil. A well-plowed field 
may absorb a full three-inch 
rainfall, and thus lessen the 
damage so often caused by sur- 
face washing. No one may say 
when the rains will come, nor 
forecast the amount; but the 
farmer has it in his power to 
store up a large amount of 
the rain to provide against 
temporary drought. This he 
may do by increasing the stor- 
age space by deep fall plow- 
ing, which prepares the 
ground to readily absorb the 
rain. The evaporation may 
be reduced by renewing the 
soil-mulch after each shower. 
This is particularly important 
in regions of low rainfall. 



Water in the Soil 73 

106. Amount of Water Required to Mature a Crop. For 

every pound of dry matter made by growing corn, cotton, 
oats, etc., it has been estimated from many experiments 
that from two hundred to four hundred pounds of water 
are required. This inchides the entire plant above 
ground, regardless of that which is harvested. Accepting 
these figures as nearly correct, let us estimate how much 
of the rainfall is consumed in maturing a good crop of 
corn, cotton, oats, etc. In a field of corn making fifty 
bushels per acre the figures would be roughly as follows: 

50 bushels corn (72 pounds to bushel). . .3,600 pounds 
Stalks and leaves 3,600 " 

Plant substance 7,200 " 

Approximate quantity of water required 

for each pound of plant substance. . . 300 " 

Water used by crop 2, 160,000 " 

A cubic foot of water .weighs 62.3 pounds. A rain-fall 
of one inch would be 5.19 pounds per square foot of 
soil, or 43,560X5.19=226,176.40 pounds on an acre. 
Dividing 2,160,000 by 226,176.40, we find that less than 
ten inches of rainfall would be used by the plants in 
making fifty bushels of corn per acre. This does not 
include the water that would evaporate from the soil 
or be lost by the surface run-off. 

106a. At Kansas City, Mo., the average annual rainfall is about 
38 inches. What per cent of this would be required to make 50 
bushels of corn per acre? What is the average rainfall in your 
county? See Appendix H. 

107. Soil Drainage. There are many places in low 
bottom lands on which water accumulates to an injuri- 
ous extent, either from seepage from the hills or from 
the lack of an outlet for the surplus water in very wet 
spells. Again, there are low "sweeps," "swags," "runs," 



74 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

^'sloughs," and the like, in which water stagnates to 
the detriment of the soil and the crops. Such places 
may often be greatly improved by making surface 
ditches or by placing drainage tiles (Fig. 41) to carry off 
the surplus water. In making open ditches it is better, 
if circumstances allow, to make them broad with sides 
sloping up about one foot in three or four. This will 
permit of the cultivation of the drainage-way, and leave 
no banks to harbor weeds or interfere with the driving 
of the plows in any direction. Sometimes underground 
drainage ways are provided. These are often made by 
digging narrow ditches to the proper depth and filling 
partly with coarse stones, logs, etc., before refilling. The 
surplus water finds an outlet through the spaces between 
the stones. Regular drainage tiles are now most often 
used in place of loose stone. They may be secured in 
any size to suit the local conditions. Many fields have 
been greatly improved by placing rows of tile drains 
every thirty feet or so. The prompt drainage of some 
soils is just as important as the conservation of water 
in others. An excess of water delays the warming of the 
soil in spring, and prevents the growth of the roots. 

On hillsides, water flows off so quickly that it forms 
washes, or gullies, in the land. The field is injured, not 
only by a direct washing off of the productive surface 
soil, but also by a leaching out of the valuable mineral 
plant foods that accumulate in the surface soils that are 
not washed. (T| 130.) Every one has noticed the lessened 
productiveness of sloping hillsides that have been long in 
cultivation. Many plans have been proposed to lessen 
these losses to the productive qualities of such lands, or 
to restore such qualities to fields that have been injured 
by neglect. Some lands wash badly, even though the 



Water in the Soil 75 

slope is very gradual. Uncultivated lands are protected 
from devastating washings by their coverings of grass, 
weeds, and other forms of vegetation. The latter retard 
the flow of the surface water, and therefore allow more 
of it to soak into the soil. 

In preventing injury by too rapid surface drainage, 
or in recovering land that has been injured by washings, 
several working principles have been proposed, which 
may be applied with success, either singly or in com- 
binations, to suit the local circumstances: 

(a) Bij Terracing. This consists in breaking the slope 
up into a number of terraces, or level belts, with sharply 
sloping sides, such as may be observed on a very large 
scale along the shores of lakes or water courses. The ter- 
races are made nearly level, so that the rain is kept on 
the land longer, and therefore facilitates absorption and 
allows the excess to flow off slowly. Terraces are pref- 
erable to the old-time hillside ditches. The latter quite 
often magnify the trouble they were intended to pre- 
vent. Objections are made to terracing because of the 
great cost of construction and the increased cost of cul- 
tivation. Also, because a part of the land is left uncul- 
tivated, and therefore likely to grow up in weeds. The 
practice of running the rows on a level around a hillside 
may be considered a form of terracing. 

(b) By Deep Breaking, or keeping the absorptive 
power of the soil to a point where moderate rains will 
be readily absorbed. (^ 105.) 

(c) B]/ Growing Cover-crops {*\ 144) which not only 
protect the land while they are on the land, but also 
add vegetable matter which tends to bind the soil to- 
gether. Soils in southern climates usually contain less 
vegetable matter, and therefore suffer more from wash- 



76 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 




Fig. 41b. eliuwth of rye in carl>- siniug. ,1, iiiilertilizefl; ii, fertilized with 
nitrogenous fertilizer. The leaching rains had robbed the soil of its nat- 
ural store of nitrogen. Arkansas Experiment Station. 

ing than similar soils in northern climates. This fact 
should suggest to farmers in southern climates their 
need of greater attention to the use of cover crops. 
(Fig. 41b.) 



QUESTIONS 

1. In what three forms does water exist in the soil? 2. Explain 
capillary water. Hygroscopic water. 3. Between what per cents 
of water content do plants grow most vigorously? 4. Can an irri- 
gated field have too much water? 5. What becomes of the rains? 
6. What can the farmer do to make use of a greater amount of 
the average rainfall? 7. About how much water is used for every 
pound of dry matter made by growing cotton, or corn? 8. Why is 
soil drainage important? 9. How should open drains be made? 10. 
What is a tile drain? 11. Why are foot-hill fields more productive 
than hill fields? 12. Mention several ways of reducing the leaching 
and washing of hillside fields. 13. Explain the theory of each 
method. 



CHAPTER XII 

RELATION OF THE PLANT TO THE CHEMICAL 
COMPOSITION OF THE SOIL 

"The soil is not only a sponge, from which the plant 
may obtain water, but it is also a storehouse of plant 
food and a laboratory in which the plant food is pre- 
pared and dissolved for the plant." — Osterhout, Ex- 
periments with Plants. 

108. In the preceding chapter, the relation of the 
plant to the water contained in the soil, and the means 
by which the water supply may be increased, have been 
discussed. These tillage operations not only cause the 
water to be retained for the use of the plants, but to dis- 
solve the mineral food elements in the soil. While the 
amount, the kind, and the condition of these soil foods 
affect very greatly the fertility or agricultural value of 
a soil, we should remember that, without resort to 
means for improving the mechanical condition, many 
soils, naturally rich in plant food, would yield poor 
crops. We should therefore not only study closely the 
relation of the chemical composition but of the physical 
properties of the soil to the fruitfulness of the crops. 

109. The Essential Elements. By growing plants with 
their roots in a medmm of known composition, plant 
physiologists have determined which elements of the 
soil are really necessary for the healthy, normal growth 
of the plant. By the same means they have been able 
to determine the effect of other substances. For these 
tests, the plants are usually grown in vessels thoroughly 

(77) 



78 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



cleaned and partly filled with distilled water (water cul- 
tures), or with pure sand (sand cultures), to which are 
added solutions containing the different substances 
supposed to be necessary for plants. These solutions are 
made similar in every respect to the solutions as they 
occur naturally in the soil. Plants have been grov/n to 
maturity in these artificial solutions side by side with 
ones just Hke them planted in the ground, 
and with equally satisfactory results. Where 
it was desired to determine if, say, potas- 
sium was really necessary, a solution was 
prepared having all the ingredients found 
in the soil waters except potassium, and in 
this the plants would be grown. Fig. 42 
shows the results of growing buckwheat in 
a complete or normal nutrient solution and 
also when certain important elements are 
withheld. It should be remembered that 
some potash, calcium, etc., was in the seed 
so that not al! the mineral nutrients 
are kept from the plantlet. Sodium, 
while quite simi- 
lar to potassium, 
can not replace 
potassium as a 
nutrient. 

110. Effect of 
Fertilizers. An- 
other way of 
S testing the effect 

Fig 42 liu. kxN holt grown in artihf 111 solutions of ^^ ^ SUbstaUCC 

miner il nut' K nts j4, complete -olutioii i?, potas- !(, f^. arnw tViP 

Slum \vithhel(l C, nitrogen ^vithheld, D, c lU mm ^» ^^ s^^w tuc 

(lime) withheld; £?, without potassium, but so- r^lon + a in cnmA 

dium added. Drawn from photograph by Nobbe. pi'iUlb Ul bUUie 




Relation of the Plant to the Soil 



79 



available soil and add the substances to the soil. This is 
called fertilizing the soil. Fig. 43 illustrates the effect 
of applying different fertilizing substances to a sandy 
soil taken from a field in Eastern Texas. Fig. 44 shows 
the effect of adding nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus 
to pot-cultures of alfalfa made at the Oklahoma Agri- 
cultural and Mechanical College. 




Fig. 43. Effect of fertilizers on fine sandy loam. An application of phos- 
phoric acid is denoted by P; potash by K; nitrogen by N. 

111. The Quantity of Fertilizing Substances added to 
the soil is but a small fraction of the increased weight of 
the crop which it produces. Minerals are absorbed by 
the plants in exceedingly small amounts, for they form 
only about one part in two hundred of the fresh, living 
plant, and rarely more than five per cent of the dry 
substance. They are necessary as food substance; they 
become a part of the living plant substance. Exceedingly 
small amounts suffice in the case of iron, sulphur, chlo- 



80 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



rine, calcium, and magnesium. The substances named 
occur in nearly all soils in quantities sufficient to supply 
the plants abundantly. Other substances, as potassium, 
phosphorus and nitrogen, are more important, and must 
be supplied when necessary. (See table of fertilizing 
substances in feed-stuffs in Appendix.) 

112. The Form in Which Plants Take Up Their Mineral 
Food. These "elements" occur in the soil as compounds 
with other substances. The soil is composed mostly of 




Fig. 44. Pot cultures of alfalfa, showing effect of adding different fertilizers. 
D9, nothing; DIO, nitrogen; Dll, potassium, and D12, phosphorus. Pho- 
tograph from Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College. 

insoluble compounds, which the plants cannot use. The 
particles are very slowly changed into soluble compounds, 
and in this form are absorbed by the plants. The amount 
or per cent of soluble matter in the soil water at any 
one time is exceedingly small, as shown by the analysis 
of natural waters. In fact, if the amount should exceed 
ten parts in a thousand the effect would be unfavorable 
on the growth of the plant. The total amount of, say, 
potash in the soil may be several per cent of the total 
soil weight, yet the amount in solution at any time may 
rarely exceed fifty parts per million of water. It is well 



Relation of the Plant to the Soil 



81 



that this is so, for, otherwise, the valuable soil constitu- 
ents would be washed off to the sea by the percolating 
water. It is the great solubility of some substances, like 
nitrates, that explains their scarcity in the soil. 

Mineral Matter Dissolved in 100,000 Parts of 
Drainage Water. 





Field Nd. 1 


Field No. 2 


Field No. 3 


Potash 


trace 
trace 
10.27 
1.43 
6.93 
10.00 
16.25 

44.88 


trace 
0.17 
21.17 
3.10 
10.24 
10.57 
12.04 


0.07 


Phosphoric acid 

Nitrogen compounds 

Soda 

Lime 

Soluble organic matter .... 
Other substances 


trace 
2.79 
1.24 
2.23 
8.00 
6.89 


Total 


57.29 


21.22 



113. Chemical Change in the Soil. The soil is the seat 
of constant changes, and these changes have great in- 
fluence on the productiveness of the soil. When the 
soil is plowed, the particles are exposed more to the 
action of the air, water, frost, etc. When humus is put 
into the soil, acids are formed as the humus decomposes, 
and these tend to dissolve the substances in the soil. 

114. Soil-Bacteria. Humus also encourages the growth 
of soil bacteria, because they live on plant and animal 
remains. These bacteria decompose the humus, and, 
in doing so, set free carbonic acid, which aids in dis- 
solving the particles of soil. Thus it is that the bacteria 
of decay act beneficially on the soil. Other species of 
bacteria cause the formation of nitrates from ammonia 
or other nitrogen compounds or the free nitrogen of the 
air. No soil will long remain fertile unless the supply of 
organic matter is kept up. 



82 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



115. Effect of Wheat and Barley Grown Continuously 
on the Same Land. Some results from the famous ex- 
periments of Lawes and Gilbert at the Rothamsted 
estate* are very instructive in showing the effect of 
growing crops . continuously on the same soil. Wheat 
and barley, as well as other crops, have been grown on 
the same land through a series of years without manur- 
ing. Adjoining these non-fertiUzed crops were others 
treated annually with barnyard manure. Tests were 
also made of the effect of various other fertiUzers. 
The results are given in averages for periods of eight 
years. They show that the annual application of manure 
increased the average annual yield twenty bushels per 
acre for wheat and thirty-two and one-eighth bushels for 
barley. 

Effect of Continuous Cropping With and 
Without Manuring. 





Wheat. Bus. per acre 


Barley. Bus. per acre 




Un- 
manured 


Manured 


Un- 
manured 


Manured 


8 years, 1844-51 

8 years, 1852-59 

8 years, 1860-67 

8 years, 1868-75 

8 years, 1876-83 

8 years, 1884-91 

8 years, 1892-93 

Average 50 years .... 


17| 
16i 
13 V 
12} 
lOV 
121 
9i 

13i 


28 

341 

35i 

35f 

28f 

39i 

33f 

33i 


24i 
18 
14* 
14f 

111 
101 

16+ 


44i 
52f 
49^ 
521 

44| 

48f 



♦Rothamsted Estate, Hartfordshire, England, the home of noteworthy in- 
vestigations in agriculture under the Lawes Agricultural Trust, was founded in 
1843 by Sir J. B. Lawes. These investigations, directed by Sir Joseph Gilbert 
and the distinguished founder for more than half a century, have had great in- 
fluence in shaping the agricultural practices of the world. 



CHAPTER XIII 

IMPROVING THE CHEMICAL NATURE 
OF THE SOIL 

116. What Plants Remove from the Soil. The amount 
of mineral food substances removed from the soil by a 
bountiful harvest is considerable. The object of fertil- 
izing is not only to return to the soil the elements that 
help the growth of the crops, but also to improve the 
tilth. In applying fertilizers, we should remember that 
our effort is to bring about a twofold result : (a) to supply 
mineral food, and (b) to improve the texture of the soil. 
While, ordinarily, we add substances supplying soluble 
salts containing nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus, it 
should be remembered that equally beneficial results are 
sometimes secured by applying dressings of substances 
that do not contain any considerable quantities of these 
elements, as Hme, plaster of Paris, or gypsum. The 
benefits derived from these substances are due to the 
effect they have on the physical properties of the soil. 
The lime may also cause the decomposition of insoluble 
particles containing potassium or phosphorus. (Fig. 45.) 

116a. Corn contains about 1.58 per cent of nitrogen; 0.37 per 
cent of potassium; and 0.57 per cent of phosphorus. How much of 
each does a crop of 50 bushels per acre remove from the soil? 

117. Not All Soils Need the Same Fertilizer. Experi- 
ments have shown that the chemical analysis of a soil 
does not give a farmer a satisfactory guide as to what 
fertilizer to apply to his land. The analysis might show 
a high per cent of potash, and yet it might be in such 

(83) 



84 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



r 








BE 


E 


F 




A 




A A^ 


tv 












Ti 1 [■ 






f, i 


E 




f- 


1 \§j 






? 




X 










^ 
* 


o — 5 






z 






s. 


■o 


t- 











STRAWBERRIES 




A. Showing the amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash removed 
from the farm when 1,000 pounds each of beef, m^illi, butter, and strawberries 
are sold. 



CORN 



WHEAT 



OATS 








A A 














■■I 




1 








fi 


] 


I 






* 








o 






i 
















- .:■• 






2 






..sRv ■ 










1 


ftj 



<- 


1 ,. .4. .S- 












{ 




r 
< 




M 


, 


- 


I 






















? 






i 


<■'.-: 






J° . 




LJ 





£S- 



B. Showing the amounts of the three most important plant foods 
from the soil by growing 1,000 pounds each of corn, wheat, 



removed 
and oats. 



C. Showing the amounts of the three principal 
plant-foods removed from and returned to 
the soil by 1,000 pounds each of cotton 
lint, cotton seed, and alfalfa. 



COTTON LINT 



COTTON SEED 



t?J 



a 































-z 





































1- 












z 










\ 






¥ 






I 






I 






\. 






\ 







t 










\ 






^• 




r 






:i 




< 




.■^. 


-i: 




H 




'•'■■'.' 




Q 















Fig. 45. 



Tables showing the amount of mineral food substances removed and 
returned to the soil by various crops. 



insoluble combinations that the plants could not absorb 
it. This would not be the general rule, however. Usu- 
ally, where the soil analysis shows a high per cent of 
an essential element, fertilizing with substances con- 
taining this element rarely gives returns above the cost 
of the fertilizer. The only safe rule by which to learn 



Improving the Chemical Nature of the Soil 85 

the needs of a particular field is to make trials, using 
a variety of fertilizers, and thus observe what fertilizer 
gives most satisfactory results. These tests must be 
made for each soil formation. (See Tj 133.) 

118. Kinds of Fertilizers. Fertilizers are variously 
classed, according to the valuable element they supply, 
as "nitrogenous", "phosphate" or "potash" fertilizers. 
Substances containing all three constituents are termed 
"complete" fertilizers; or according to source, as home 
fertilizers, or commercial fertilizers. In most instances 
the substances applied to the land contain more than 
one valuable element, as, for instance, composts, which, 
being made out of plant remains, contain all the mineral 
elements found in plants. 

119. Potassium Fertilizers. The most important 
source of potash fertilizers is the famous Stassfurt mines 
of Germany. The most common forms known to the 
markets are the sulphate, muriate and kainit— the latter 
a mixture of several salts. All are readily soluble and 
therefore are classed as "quick fertilizers." Wood-ashes 
form an important source of potash, though their 
value depends much on the source, and the way in 
which they have been cared for. If leached out by the 
rains, their value as a fertilizer is much lessened. Lime 
and gypsum often have the effect of potash fertilizers, 
causing the decomposition of insoluble potash com- 
pounds in the soil, and thus indirectly acting as potash 
fertilizers. The "home-made lye" obtained from ashes 
is largely potash. 

120. Phosphorus Fertilizers. Phosphorus is an im- 
portant fertiUzer. Three-fourths of the phosphorus 
absorbed from the soil is deposited in the grain of the 
crop, and is, therefore, ordinarily sold from the farm, 



86 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

while only one-fourth remains in the straw. Phos- 
phorus compounds are widely distributed, though, 
usually, in insoluble compounds. Phosphorus is found 
in the soils combined witH lime, magnesia, iron and 
alumina. For fertilizing purposes phosphates are ob- 
tained from bones, and rocks formed by the deposit of 
similar remains. In bones it exists as the insoluble 
lime phosphate. To overcome this, the rock or bone 
phosphates are treated with sulphuric acid which con- 
verts the insoluble into soluble compounds. When ap- 
plied to the soil it soon 1-eturns to the insoluble salt, 
dicalcium phosphate. This latter is soluble in the pres- 
ence of carbonic acid formed by the roots and decaying 
humus, and is hence readily available. (See ^ 76.) 
Phosphorus fertilizers do not give beneficial results when 
applied to soils containing an excess of lime, like most 
of the "black waxy" soils. 

Bone-black, formed by heating raw bones in the 
presence of air, is used in large quantities by sugar 
refineries. When it has served its purpose, it becomes a 
waste product and is sold for fertilizing. It has little 
value until treated with sulphuric acid. Bone-meal is 
the fresh bone ground and steamed and contains some 
nitrogenous matters in addition to the phosphorus. 

The commercial supplies of phosphates are bones 
and phosphate rocks. The latter are mined in large 
quantities in South Carolina, Florida, Tennessee, Vir- 
ginia and Pennsylvania. 

121. Nitrogenous Fertilizers. Nitrogen is absorbed 
by plants as nitrates. The most readily available form 
is the "Chili saltpeter," found in large quantities in 
rainless regions on the western coast of South America. 
As it occurs naturally in the "saltpeter beds" it contains 




Yield from one-tenth acre of cotton, with fertilizer containing phosphoric 
acid, nitrogen and potash. 

Fig. 46. Some soils are made more productive by fertilizers. 



88 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

a large amount of common salt, but when prepared for 
commerce it is a crude form of nitrate of soda. This is 
the form most used on quick-growing truck crops. It is 
readily soluble and, therefore, easily washed out of the 
soil. (See H 127, Nitrification.) 

Sulphate of ammonia is obtained as a by-product 
in the manufacture of illuminating gas from coal, and 
from the distillation of bone in the manufacture of bone- 
black. It is a very concentrated fertilizer, containing 
about twenty per cent nitrogen. Ammonia salts are 
readily converted into the nitrates by the nitrifying 
bacteria and are usually absorbed by plants in this 
form. 

122. Guano, obtained from the habitation of flesh- 
eating birds roosting in caves and sea islands, has long 
been used as a fertilizer. Dried fish, blood, hair, leather, 
and various other substances of animal origin, are fre- 
quently used for fertilizing purposes. The nitrogen of 
both animal and vegetable origin must first be decom- 
posed and converted into nitrates before it can be used 
by plants. This takes time, and hence such substances 
are slow-acting fertilizers. The meal, or pomace, 
obtained as a by-product in the extraction of vege- 
table oils, all contain large quantities of nitrogen, 
such as cottonseed meal, castor pomace, germ meal 
obtained from corn, etc. These substances are very 
valuable as feeds for stock. This does not preclude 
their use for fertilizing, for, in fact, they are almost 
as valuable for fertilizing purposes, after passing 
through the cattle, as before. 

123. Composted manures are the most economical and, 
in general, the most desirable fertilizers. Besides sup- 
plying large amounts of nitrogen, they contain consid- 



Improving the Chemical Nature of the Soil 89 

erable quantities of potash and phosphoric acid. The 
vegetable matter acts very beneficially, improving the 
texture and water-retaining property of the soil. An 
instance of the power of compost to maintain the land 
at a high state of productiveness has already been 
given (^ 115). Compost should be applied in the fall or 
early, winter and plowed or harrowed under. Covered 
barns prevent the loss in value of compost by scattering 
and leaching. Sometimes the compost is removed 
directly to the field. In many cases, where it is stored in 
bins, sufficient soil should be added from time to time 
to absorb the ammonia that is formed. When packed 
down closely to exclude the air, the loss from fermenta- 
tion will be greatly reduced. 

124. Fization of Free Nitrogen by the tubercle-forming 
bacteria, found on the roots of plants belonging to the 
pea family, is the most important source of nitrogen 
known. By growing these legumes we add to the supply 
of combined nitrogen, and thus make the world richer. 
We do not recover all the nitrogen added to the soil in 
fertilizing. A part of it is lost by leaching, and a part by 
the escape of free nitrogen. All combined nitrogen may 
be used over and over again by plants and animals, but 
eventually it escapes back to the air as free nitrogen 
and, in this form, is available only to the bacteria 
which cause the formation of tubercles on the roots of 
legumes, and to a low class of microscopic plants. (See 
TI 127, Nitrification.) Without these plants the world's 
supply of combined nitrogen would become exhausted. 
In the present state of our knowledge, only the "tubercle 
bacteria," and one or two other classes of bacteria, 
whose life-habits are little understood, are known to 
have the power of fixing free nitrogen. 



90 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



125. Tubercles on Legumes. Plants belonging to the 
pea or legume family have small tubercles on their roots. 
(Fig. 47, A and B.) On opening the small tubercles found 





Fig. 47. A, root system of pea with tubercles. B, root system of alfalfa with 
tubercles. After Belzung 

on the roots of beans, peas, alfalfa, blue bonnets, etc., 

we notice in the center a rose-colored area. If a bit 

of this is scraped into a drop of water, it becomes milky 

because of the hundreds of bacteria. 

They are so small that the most powerful 

microscopes are needed to make out their 

form. (Fig. 48.) It is these httle plants 

that have the power to take the free 

nitrogen of the atmosphere and convert 

it into such form that the nodule-bearing 

plants, such as the cow- pea, may use it. 

Without these bacteria the legumes do not 

fix free nitrogen. It is this nitrogen-fixing 

power that makes these plants so valu- 'fubercie o/°\e- 

, . gume showing 

able to us. the bacteria. 




Improving the Chemical Nature of the Soil 91 

126. How Legumes Enrich the Soil. By growing 
legumes (cow-peas, alfalfa, peanuts, etc.) the farmer is 
able to harvest a crop valuable as food for man, or feed 
for stock. These crops are especially valuable because 
of the large amount of nitrogenous or muscle-building 
substances which they contain. At the same time, 
strange as it may seem, they leave a larger quantity 
of nitrogen in the soil than was there before the crop 
was sown. The latter becomes available to other plants 
by the decay of the roots. This promotes the yield 
of the succeeding crop, as the following experiment 
shows: The plan of the experiment included two 
plots, "A" and "B." On "A" clover was grown the 
first year and barley the second. On "B" barley was 
grown both years. The increase in yield of barley on 
plot "A" over "B" is the measure of the manurial value 
of the roots of the clover left in the soil by the first year's 
crop. 



Plot 


Yield in 
first year 




Yield in 
second year 


A. Clover . . . 


. . . Clover 


Barley 


69.4 bus. 


B. Barley... 


.. .37.3 bus. 


Barley 


39.1 bus. 



Increase in yield due to clover roots. .30.3 bus. per acre. 

The fixation of free nitrogen by the bacteria in the 
root nodules of the pea family has been thoroughly 
studied and is well established. 

127. Nitrification is the formation of nitrates or salts 
containing nitrogen. Whenever vegetable or animal 
remains, like guano, cottonseed meal, composts and 
animal bodies, decay in the soil, the complex nitrogen 
compounds are broken up, and nitrates are formed. 
Nitrogen, which is so essential to plant Hfe, is absorbed 
from the soil as nitrates. The nitrogen in the cottonseed 



92 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

meal, for instance, must be converted into a soluble 
salt before it can be absorbed. This change is complex 
and is brought about by certain kinds of bacteria in 
the soil. 

128. How to Promote Nitrification. Since the amount 
of nitrate nitrogen in the soil affects the yield of crops, 
particularly grain and forage crops, the question is often 
asked, "Can the farmer promote the growth of the nitri- 
fying bacteria in his soils?" The answer is "yes." These 
bacteria are most active when the soil is loose, so that 
air can enter. These bacteria use large amounts of oxy- 
gen in making the nitrates, hence deep cultivation is 
the first essential to promote their activity. They do not 
grow in strongly acid soils. (See further in any ency- 
clopedia, under "Saltpeter.") Nitrification is most active 
during the summer when the temperature is high. It 
ceases when the temperature of the soil falls below 
50° Fahr. 

129. De-nitrification is the destruction of nitrates. 
This is due to another class of bacteria, but, fortunately, 
the soil conditions that favor nitrification tend to retard 
de-nitrification. De-nitrification takes place in a serious 
degree, sometimes, when manure is not properly cared 
for; as when it becomes too dry, or when so wet that air 
is excluded. The same is true for the soils of the fields. 

130. How the Soil Loses Nitrogen. The complex 
nitrogen compounds are usually converted into nitrates 
and absorbed by growing plants. If not absorbed, they 
may be destroyed by the de-nitrifying bacteria, or leached 
from the soil by percolating waters. They are quite 
soluble and, therefore, easily washed from the soil, par- 
ticularly so from fallow soils through the winter months. 
The practice of leaving our cotton and corn fields fallow 



Improving the Chemical Nature of the Soil 93 

and unplowed through the winter has much to do with 
the "wearing out" of the soils. A better plan would be 
to have the ground covered by some winter annual 
plant, such as oats, which could be grazed. 

131. Green Manuring. Sometimes crops are grown 
with no intention of saving the above-ground portion 
for hay, but it is plowed under to increase the content 
of humus in the soil. While, in general, it would be 
much better to save the hay and, after feeding to stock, 
return the compost to the soil, there may be situations 
where it is desirable to turn the entire crop directly 
into the soil. When a crop is plowed under to enrich the 
soil, sufficient time should be allowed for complete decay 
before sowing another crop. The decaying plant remains 
often causes the soil to become quite acid for months 
afterward. Legumes are best for green manuring. 

132. Relation of Texture to Fertilizing. The profit or 
loss resulting from the application of fertilizers depends 
much on the texture of the soil. Irrigation water and 
fertilizers are but poor and expensive substitutes for 
timely efforts to improve the texture of the soil. The 
best results from irrigation, or the application of ferti- 
lizers, may be expected only when the soil is in the most 
favorable tilth. "Tillage is manure." 

133. Experiments on Soil Testing. In Tj 117, mention 
was made of the desirability of testing the value of 
various fertilizing substances for any particular soil 
formation. Select a level piece of soil whose productive- 
ness is to be tested under varying treatments, and lay 
out into beds, one (or two, or more, if desired) yard 
square. The location selected should be such as to give 
uniform conditions in all the beds, and all should be pre- 
pared alike. Fall-sown oats, wheat, or barley, are suitable 



94 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

crops for tests in school gardens. From the usual amount 
of the various fertilizers applied per acre, we may cal- 
culate the amounts necessary for the beds. If they are 
just one yard square, divide the usual quantities by the 
number of square yards per acre (4,840), and the quo- 
tient will indicate the amount required for the beds. 
It is recommended that a space of two feet be left be- 
tween the beds to guard against the possibility of the 
fertilizer in one bed affecting results in adjacent ones. 
The location should be one not subject to washing or 
flooding. 

133a. Scheme for Field Tests of Different Fertilizers. Beds exactly 
one yard square. Walks two feet wide. 

1. Land for beds plowed 2. Harrowed, or raked 

3. Beds laid out and staked. . . 4. Fertilizers applied 

5. Beds planted 6. Quantity of seed to each bed. . 

7. Depth planted 8. Plants appeared above ground 



Fertilizers 



Nothing (check) 

Compost 

Wood ashes 

Fresh lime 

Common salt 

Sodiuin nitrate 

Acid phosphate .... 
Nothing (check). . . . 

Potash (Kainit) 

Combination — 

Soluble phosphate 

Sodium nitrate. . . 
Nothing (check). . . . 
Combination — 

Phosphate 

Potassium nitrate 
Nothing (check) 



At the rate per 
acre in povinds 



10,000-20,000 
1,000-3,000 
5,000-20,000 



100-300 
200-400 

100-300 

200-400 
200-300 



Quantity 
of lbs. ap- 
plied to one 
square yard 



2 lbs 
i lb. 

3 lbs 
1 oz 

1 oz 

2 oz 

1 oz 

1 oz 
1 oz 



Lbs. of 
crop har- 
vested 



CHAPTER XIV 



PRODUCTIVENESS OF SOILS 



134. Fertility and Productiveness Compared. A soil 

may be fertile, that is, rich in food elements, but not pro- 
ductive because of the presence of some harmful sub- 
stance in the soil. A familiar example is the "clover 
sickness" of northern soils. A soil naturally suited to 
clover will grow 
several splendid crops, 
and then become 
"sick of clover," as 
they say, because 
clover will not thrive 
any longer. The soil 
is still rich in all ele- 
ments of fertility, but 
not productive for clo- 
ver because of some 
poisonous substance 
thought to be ex- 
creted or produced by 
the decay of the clo- 
ver roots. If planted 
to other crops for a 
few seasons it will re- 
cover its former pro- 
ductiveness. The in- 
jurious results of 
even a single crop of 




Fig. 49. Poisonous substances in the soil, 

formed by decaying vegetable matter, some- 
times Iceep a fertile soil from being pro- 
ductive. fWheat seedlings grown in: (1) 
Pure distilled water ; (2) soil extract ; (3) 
same soil extract from wiiicii the poisonous 
substances have been removed by absorp- 
tion with carbon black.) Bureau of Soils, 
United States Department of Agriculture. 



(95) 



96 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

sorghum on some soils is much greater than could result 
from the loss of fertilizing substance removed by the 
crop. The effect is probably due to the formation of 
some harmful substance by the roots. These injurious 
substances are dissolved in the soil moisture. Deep 
plowing and the application of composts tend to over- 
come the bad effects of the poisonous substances. 

135. Soil Conditions That Affect Production. The in- 
telligent farmer watches his crop closely from day to 
day, and studies all the conditions that affect the vigor 
or fruitfulness of his crop, of which there are many. 
The general health of the plant may be affected as 
much by conditions above the ground as by conditions 
below the ground. If the plants are not growing properly, 
close observation will often lead one to discover the 
unfavorable condition, and a remedy for it. 

136. Excessive Droughty Conditions are noticed by 
wilting, twisting, or drooping conditions of the leaves. 
The plants endure but do not make profitable growth 
when this condition exists, even for a part of the day. 
Where irrigation is not possible, prevention is the only 
remedy. (See 1 95, 105.) 

137. Wet Soil Conditions often cause the leaves and 
stems to grow slowly and assume a yellowish cast, with 
splashes of purple. This condition is not the result of 
too much water in the plant, but of some injurious 
effect of water-logged soils on the roots. Many plants 
can be grown to full maturity with their roots in water, 
but not in a water-logged soil. Soils that frequently 
retain injurious amounts of water should be drained. 
(See II 107.) 

138. Soils Deficient in Essential Elements. Some soils 
do not have enough of some one or more of the essential 



Productiveness of Soils 



97 



elements to suit the requirements of the crop. It is im- 
portant in this particular to remember that forage crops 
need large amounts of nitrogen, and grain crops much 
phosphorus. The fruit crops require much potash. A 
soil may even be deficient in any one or several of the 
essential elements. The best and safest guide to learn 
the special fertilizing needs of a soil is to try by test. 
(See II 133a.) 

139. Chemical Elements May Not Be in Balance. A 
soil may contain so much nitrogen that the crop, say 











~w 


' > i 


- 








*C^^^^^^^B^fc^^»i 


B 


"si^ 


Av 


i 


'I'f^^^^ss^Sfc 






m 


M 



Fig. 50. yhowing the effect of an excess of lime and magnesia on plant growth. 
Excess of lime in pots on left; excess of magnesia in pots on right. Nearly 
equal amounts of each in center pots. From Bull, United States Department 
of Agriculture. 

grain or fruit, goes all to wood and leaf and does not 
produce a harvest. In such cases, a potash or a phos- 
phate fertilizer would be needed to balance the ration 
of mineral food. Sometimes some element, even an 
essential element, may be in excess. Plants require 
magnesium and calcium (^j 43), but an excess of either 
may be the cause of a poor result. Fig. 50 shows the re- 
sult of adding lime to balance an excess of magnesia in 
the soil, and shows the effect of balanced and unbalanced 
amounts of calcium and magnesium on plant growth. 
The good effects that sometimes result from the appli- 



98 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

cation of lime may be due to tlie establishment of bal- 
ance between the calcium and magnesium as just men- 
tioned; to the effect on insoluble potassium or phos- 
phorus compounds (^ 90); to a mechanical effect on the 
texture of the soil (^ 73) ; to the effect of lime in taking 
up an excess of acid in soils (Tj 141); or in neutralizing 
some forms of alkali. 

140. The Mechanical Condition of the soil may be the 
cause of unsatisfactory crops. Some crops, like wheat, do 
best with a settled sub-surface soil, while beets, potatoes 
and many other crops do best with a very loose soil. To 
have the proper mechanical condition of a soil for a 
particular crop is of great importance. It is in this par- 
ticular that the farmer makes the greatest effort to im- 
prove the productiveness of his soils. Herein lie the most 
important problems of preparing and cultivating the soil. 
In improving the mechanical qualities, the important 
effects to be considered are: 

(a) The absorption of the rainfall; 

(b) The retention and movement of the water in the 
different layers of soil; 

(c) The circulation of air in the soil; and 

(d) The absorption and retention of the heat of the 
sun, and its loss by radiation. 

While these properties are fixed, in a large degree, by 
the nature of the substance composing the soil, they 
may be greatly improved by the ordinary means of 
tillage. To know when to plow is just as important as 
to know how the soil should be plowed. Who can tell 
when and why, and how and why for plowing a partic- 
ular piece of soil to prepare for a particular crop? 

140a. The following topics are suggested for discussion : How- 
many kinds of soils are in the school district? What crops are 



Productiveness of Soils 99 

grown. What yields are secured? Are the differences in yields due 
to the properties of the soil or to the way the soils are prepared or 
the way the crops are cultivated? Is fall or spring breaking pre- 
ferred? What reasons do farmers give for justifying fall breaking or 
spring breaking? 

141. Sour, or Acid, Soils are very unfavorable to some 
crops. Many soils are slightly acid, as will be found when 
tested with litmus paper. They differ greatly in the 
degree of sourness. Very acid soils are not favorable 
for alfalfa, cotton, etc.; but, for corn and small grains, no 
rule has yet been suggested. Soils that contain injurious 
amounts of acid are found in swamps or in sandy uplands. 

141a. To Test Soils for Acid, use a small slip of litmus paper, 
secured from the druggist. Place the paper against the moist soil, 
and the color after some minutes will change. If blue, the soil is 
alkaline; if red, it is acid. More reliable results will be secured if 
the soil is extracted in distilled water, and then tested with litmus 
or other indicator. 

141b. To Test Soils for Free Lime, drop a small lump into a 
glass of strong vinegar. If lime is present bubbles will continue to 
stream from the lump for some minutes. Soils with free lime pres- 
ent are not acid. 

141^. Alkali Salts in a soil may be the cause of un- 
productiveness. There are several kinds of very soluble 
salts that accumulate in the surface soils, most fre- 
quently in regions of low rainfall. Often the dwarfing 
effect of alkali salts is confined to a low place, a wet- 
weather seep, or other place where a quantity of soil- 
water is evaporated. These salts are formed in all soils, 
but where the rainfall is abundant they are washed out 
of the soil by percolating water. If the rain is all evapo- 
rated from the surface, it will cause an accumulation of 
these salts near the surface to such an extent that injury 
to the plant results. Lime is sometimes beneficial on 
such soils. 



CHAPTER XV 
ROTATION OF CROPS 

142. Rotation. The amount of mineral food which a 
crop will take from the soil varies with the kind of crop, 
depending on how much of the crop is removed by the 
yearly harvest, the richness of the land, and many 
seasonal features which are too complex to be discussed 
here. By referring to the table in the appendix it will 
be seen that the amount of nitrogen removed by the 
grain crops is less than the amount removed by crops 
grown for their roots. It will be noticed, also, that grain 
crops remove or require large amounts of phosphorus; 
root crops, potash; and hay crops, much nitrogen; an 
exception being made for legumes like alfalfa, clover, or 
cow peas when grown as hay crops (^j 117). Some 
legume crop should be included in any system of rota- 
tion. 

143. Order of Succession in Rotation. It is desirable 
to arrange the rotation so that the same land does not 
have the same crop twice in succession. In arranging the 
crop it is important to consider the order in which the 
crops should follow each other. Plants with shallow roots 
should follow plants with deep-feeding roots; non-cul- 
tivated crops, like grain, should follow cultivated crops, 
because the land will be in better tilth. As regards the 
predominating mineral foods, it is better to let those 
crops requiring large amounts of nitrogen follow potash- 
loving crops, or, still better, legumes, because they 
will leave additional amounts of nitrogen in the soil which 

(100) 



Rotation of Crops 



101 




Fig. 50a. Oats grown on soil previously 
sown to mustard and vetch. 



will be very beneficial to the grain, but not so necessary 
to the others. Fig. 50a shows the difference in a crop 
of oats grown on soil previously green-manured with a 
crop of mustard (a non- 
legume) and when green- 
manured with a crop of 
vetch. This result shows 
strongly the need of in- 
cluding some legume in 
any sort of rotation. In 
some soils cover crops or 
heavy applications of 
fresh manure tend to 
cause too rank a growth 
of straw in the small 
grains. In such cases it is advisable to allow a crop of 
corn to come before the small grains. 

144. Cover Crops; Catch Crops. Except in arid 
regions, it is best to keep the land constantly occupied by 
some crop. They not only keep the land continually earn- 
ing something, but it is best for the land. A field that is 
bare or fallow loses more by washing and leaching than 
when occupied by plants. It is often possible to grow a 
quick-maturing crop after the principal crops have been 
harvested, for examp e, June corn after potatoes or 
small grain; cowpeas after corn. 

145. Marketable, or Usable, Crops. In planning a 
rotation or selecting a cover crop, it is necessary to con- 
sider what may be successfully sold, or used to advan- 
tage. This will depend on the markets and the farmer's 
facilities for keeping and feeding certain kinds of crops. 

146. Other Advantages of Rotation. Besides pre- 
serving the soil nutrients, providing for their better dis- 



102 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

tribution, facilitating fertilizing, rotation (which is 
closely related to diversification) affords other ad- 
vantages: 

(a) Tends to free the land from noxious weeds, as where 
oat stubble is planted to June corn, the late cultivation 
of the corn prevents the seeding of the weeds, such as 
cockle burs or Johnson grass. 

(b) Exterminates insect and fungous diseases. Insect 
and fungous pests usually attack only particular kinds of 
crops. If the same crop is grown on the same land year 
after year, the larvse of insects and spores of the fungi 
lodging in the ground during the fallow season will 
find their food ready when the season is ready for them 
to multiply. (See ^ 217 and t 228.) 

(c) Avoids the injurious effects of growing the same 
crop continuously on the same land. Recent investiga- 
tions have shown that the decreased yields resulting 
from growing the same crop on the same land from sea- 
son to season is due not only to the loss of mineral nutri- 
ents, but also to the formation of toxic substances (^ 134) 
in the soil. These toxic substances are not usually inju- 
rious to other crops, though there are cases known where 
one crop will leave substances in the soil poisonous to 
some other crop. 

147. Distributes the Labor. Rotation and diversifi- 
cation make it possible for the work to be more evenly 
distributed through the year. Not all the crops will need 
to be planted, cultivated or harvested at the same time. 
The farmer will thus be able to keep busy, and not have 
to pay out so much for help during rush seasons that 
come with a one-crop system of farming. 



CHAPTER XVI 
RELATIONS OF PLANTS ABOVE THE GROUND 

148. We have now found out a few things about the 
relation of the plant to the soil. Soil culture, we found 
to be making a home for the roots. What can we do to 
make the conditions above the ground more favorable 
to the growth of the crops? 

149. Provide for Leaf Development. All the carbon 
in plants, which is fully half their substance, is absorbed 
from the air by the green leaves, and, through the agency 
of sunlight, made into plant substance. The leaf is a 
part, or organ, where the raw materials are brought 
together and made into the foods that nourish the plant. 
It is plain, then, that in husbanding plants provision 
should be made for normal leaf development. Leaves 
will not grow unless plenty of light is present. This is 
shown when plants are grown in darkness. We have 
often noticed how the leaves arrange themselves so that 
they get the greatest benefit from the rays of light. 
Plants growing beside a wall or in a window turn their 
leaf surfaces toward the light. Vigorous leaf develop- 
ment is possible only when plants are far enough apart 
to not unduly shade each other. Too many plants must 
not be allowed to grow on the same ground, whether 
they be weeds or all of the crop planted. When the 
plants are too close together, the leaves and side branches 
do not grow, and the stem spindles up in an effort to 
reach the best light. The individual plants • are thus 
weakened, and are more subject to the attack of insects 

(103) 



104 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

and fungi. Weak, poorly nourished plants are not fruit- 
ful. Healthy plants have large leaves. Large leaves 
indicate vigor. The rank-growing weeds have large 
leaves. Increasing the amount of leaf surface is increas- 
ing the capacity of the plant to manufacture plant 
substance. 

150. Relation of Leaf Surface to Soil Moisture. The 
total leaf surface on a plant may be several times the 
total ground surface shaded by the plant. If evapora- 
tion is increased by the winds or high temperatures, it 
may happen that the supply of soil moisture may become 
exhausted and the plant suffer. Soils covered with plants 
lose their moisture faster than if they are bare or fallow. 
In regions of slight rainfall, therefore, it often becomes 
desirable to reduce the number of plants to prevent too 
great a draft on the stores of soil moisture. This is an 
additional reason for leaving space between the indi- 
vidual plants in a crop. (See Tf 102.) 

151. How Far Apart Should Plants Be Grown? Where 
the value of the crop depends on the perfect develop- 
ment of the individual plant, or some special part, such 
as the leaves, flowers, fruits, stems, or roots, sufficient 
space should be allowed that adjacent plants will not 
interfere with each other. However, the value of the 
crop often depends more on the total weight of the 
harvest than on the quality of the individual plants. 
In such cases, the loss from a limited amount of shade 
will be more than made up by the increased number 
of plants, as in the case of the grain crops. Again, the 
fertility of the land also affects the size of the plants, 
and, of course, the space which each should be allowed. 
Often the use for which the crop is intended must be 
considered, as, for instance, in the case of sorghum grown 



Relations of Plants Above the Ground 105 

for syrup or for forage; corn grown for ensilage or for 
grain. 

152. The Vigor of Leaves and Stem Growth. The size 
of leaves is influenced largely by the amount of water 
available to the plants during the period of their for- 
mation. From this, it follows that plants grown for their 
leaves, like cabbage, lettuce, hay crops, etc., do best 
when plenty of moisture is in the ground. Light is neces- 
sary for the formation of leaves, as we have seen. Where 
branches are shaded, the lower leaves are small and 
weak, and often fall off before the season ends. As the 
buds, from which the branches, leaves and flowers of the 
succeeding season grow, are formed in the axils of the 
leaves and take their vigor from them, it is important 
that fruit trees be pruned out so that light may reach 
to all parts. (See Chapter XVIII.) 

153. The Temperature of the Air is subject to great 
and often sudden variations, whereas the soil, as we have 
seen, changes its temperature very slowly. The above- 
ground portion is more often injured by extreme cold 
or excessive heat than the part below the ground. 
The first effect of lowering the temperature is to retard 
the growth of the plant. Cold does not permanently 
affect all plants alike. Some plants are killed by moder- 
ately low temperature, while others are uninjured even 
by long exposure to severe freezing. The ill effects of 
freezing are more severe on plants when full of sap. 
Peach trees may endure a number of severe freezes 
through the winter, but if a severe cold spell comes 
late in the spring, after the buds have swollen, the 
injury is often considerable. 

Sometimes the bad effects are due to the sudden 
thawing, more than to the cold itself. The winter-killing 



106 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

of the cambium layer is often confined to the east side 
of a tree where the early sun rays cause a sudden warm- 
ing. Delicate plants, fruits, etc., may often be saved 
by protecting from too rapid thawing ; by shielding 
from the sun's rays, bathing in cold water, etc.* 

154. Buds and Nodes. If we examine the branches of 
almost any shrub or herb, we shall find that they are 
divided into segments by the buds at the nodes. We have 
already found a reason for calling the former nodes, and 
the spaces between, internodes. The buds are formed 
just above, or, as the botanist says, in the axil of the leaf, 
which readily explains the observation that the vigor 
of the buds is determined by the size of the leaves which 
nourish them. The bud at the end of the shoot, called 
the "terminal bud," is usually the most vigorous; 
but, as a rule, the vigor and the size of the buds de- 
crease as we pass down to the beginning of the season's 
growth. This is often due to the subsequent shading of 
the lower leaves, — often to the extent that they turn 
yellow and fall off. 

155. Structure and Classification of Buds. If we exam- 
ine some large buds, such as the buckeye, sycamore, or 
fig, just as they unfold their leaves in the spring, it 
will be very plainly seen that the bud scales are only 
transformed leaves, hence they are called scale-leaves 
to distinguish them from normal leaves. These scale- 
leaves cover up an embryo branch — a branch having 
miniature leaves, nodes and internodes. Nature formed 
these buds, or embryo branches, early in the preceding 
season. Note also that more buds were formed than are 
likely to grow into branches. (Fig. 52.) 

*For excellent full discussion of the effects of temperature on plants, and 
the proper treatment to lighten the bad effects, reference should be made to 
GofF. The Principles of Plant Culture; Bailey, The Principles of Fruit Culture. 



Relations of Plants Above the Ground 



107 



156. Leaf Buds and Flower Buds. If we notice the 
buds on peach or plum branches from January until 
spring, we shall see that not all the buds are the same size 
or shape. Some are pointed and slender, and will form a 
cluster of leaves when they burst forth in the spring, 
and are hence called leaf buds. Others are broad and 
rounded: these buds are flower buds. They are some- 




Fig. 51. Leaf buds and flower buds of plum. 1. Shoot bearing leaf-buds only. 
2 A bud of same enlarged. 3 and 5. Branches having leaf-buds and 
flower-buds. 4, 6 and 7. Buds of same enlarged. Flower-buds at /; leaf- 
buds at I, 

times called fruit buds, but, of course, the flower must 
always precede the formation of the fruit, so it is best 
to call them flower buds. Just below each bud is a leaf 
scar. Sometimes we shall find the leaf scars, though the 
buds are apparently not there. The}^ are there, however, 
but too small to be seen. They do not grow unless the end 
of the branch is removed. Such buds as do not grow 
except when stimulated are called late7it buds. (Fig. 51.) 



108 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

157. How to Distinguish Flower Buds. Flower buds 
are formed the same season that the leaf buds are, 
though it is not always easy to distinguish the two kinds 
till some time after the fall of the leaves. The position of 
the bud is often an indication of its kind. We notice, 
in the plum twigs illustrated in Fig. 51, that the flower 
buds are on the side of the leaf buds. We also noticed 
that the flower buds were found 

only on the wood ,of last season's 
growth. The "bearing wood" of the 
peach, plum, and o|;her similar stone 
fruits, is formed in the season before 
the flowers appear. Good crops of 
fruit cannot be had from trees of 
this class unless sufficient bearing 
wood is made the preceding season. 
In the case of the apple, pear, 
quince, etc., the flower buds are ^tctfon thlS^a Id" 
formed less regularly. They occur s^ucce'sivefy ' oide; \af 
on the ends of small side branches ^^^eTy'^'oWef ' &arh 
that are from two to five years l^X^Vs.^Hermn. 
old. The shape and place of appear- ^^°- 
ance of the flower buds vary very much in the differ- 
ent classes of fruits. It is important that one Should 
know how to recognize them and to know the time of 
their formation as well. It often gives valuable informa- 
tion as to how and when to cultivate and prune. For 
illustration, take the grape. The flower clusters are 
found on the current spring shoots, hence we prune 
heavily to promote the formation of new wood. 

158. Formation of Flower Buds. In plants that are 
esteemed for their flowers or fruits, it is desirable to 
know all the conditions that promote the formation of 




Relations of Plants Above the Ground 109 

flower buds. Some sorts are naturally more inclined to 
form flowers than others, still we can promote the 
fruitfulness of the plants by giving them proper treat- 
ment. Every one has noticed that the trees bloom more 
profusely some seasons than others. This has led many 
persons to study the conditions that induce the forma- 
tion of flower buds. 

159. Conditions That Promote the Formation of Flower 
Buds. Flower buds are formed in the greatest abundance 
when the reserve food is considerably in excess of the 
current needs of the plant. If a plant is growing too 
rapidly, using up all the food as fast as the leaves make 
it, flowers are not formed in abundance. They may be 
stimulated to form flower buds by checking the growth, 
either by reducing the water supply, by removing the 
tips (terminal buds) of the shoots, or by restricting the 
growth of the roots. When plants are young, or just at 
the opening of spring, in the case of fruit trees, they 
grow very rapidly. Flower buds already formed will open, 
but new ones are not formed till the warm, dry winds 
have checked the rapid growth of the shoots. This check- 
ing of the growth allows the formation of reserve food 
in excess of what the plant is using for growth. To en- 
courage the formation of the flower buds, then, we should 
promote the accumulation of reserve food. 

160. How to Promote the Accumulation of Reserve 
Food. Experience has shown that the three following 
rules are safe guides: 

(a) Provide favorable conditions for food formation 
in the leaves. Light and a free circulation of air are essen- 
tial. These may be secured by giving the plants plenty 
of distance, or by pruning out useless branches. The 
normal healthy conditions of the foliage should be pre- 



110 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

served. Plants suffering from the attacks of insects 
or fungi are not fruitful because they are imperfectly 
nourished. 

(b) Provide the roots with the proper amounts of 
phosphoric acid, potash, and nitrogen. An excess of nitro- 
gen tends to favor growth of leaves and shoots at the 
expense of flowers. Phosphorus and potash favor the 
formation of flowers and the full development of the 
fruit and seeds. 

(c) Check any unusual or unnecessary growth of the 
stems by withholding excessive supplies of water. This 
check to the growth naturally results when the warm 
weather of the summer sets in. Where the plants are 
grown under glass it is often possible to regulate the time 
of flowering by controlling the water supply. 

161. Fruiting in Perennial Plants is sometimes so 
excessive that they are greatly damaged. Fruit trees 
"overbear" to such an extent that they exhaust all the 
reserve food, and the flower buds do not develop for the 
succeeding crop. This gives rise to the habit of producing 
a crop every other year, noticed in apples and peaches. 

162. Sterile Plants, or other plants that are kept from 
fruiting, tend to become perennial. If the formation of 
fruits is prevented or removed while young, they con- 
tinue to grow and form new flowers. In this way, sweet 
peas, nasturtiums, and other plants grown for their 
flowers, have their blooming period prolonged. Garden 
plants of which the fruit is gathered immature, as beans, 
cucumbers and okra, grow much longer than they would 
if the first fruits formed were allowed to mature and 
exhauct the plant. Clover, grown so extensively in the 
North and in some southern states, is a biennial ; though, 
if prevented from fruiting, it becomes a perennial. 



CHAPTER XVII 
THE OFFICE OF FLOWERS 

163. We have already mentioned some of the con- 
ditions that promote the free formation of flowers. We 
might call it the conditions necessary for fruitfulness, 
for the flower is only a step in the formation of the fruit 
and seeds. Some plants are cultivated only for their 
leaves, stems or roots — as cabbages, lumber trees, or pota- 
toes. Most plants, however, owe their value to the crop 
of seed or fruit which they bear. In the latter class, in- 
cluding the fruits and grains, it is not only necessary that 
the flowers be formed, but that they should form seed 
abundantly. They must "set seed," as the farmer says. 
To understand this process, we must know more about 
the structure and the use of the different parts of a 
flower. 

164. Structure of Flowers. Flowers are very varied in 
their form, size, and in the arrangement of their parts. 
If we should closely examine a flower of a peach or a 
geranium, to take familiar examples, we shall find that it 
has several parts, each of which contributes some service 
to the success of the plant's effort to form seed. We 
have already learned that a seed is usually an embryo 
plant, with a store of reserve food, both inclosed in a 
protecting case called the seed coat. 

165. The Names of the Parts. We must learn the parts 
of a flower and their names. We first notice the brightly 
colored petals. They attract our attention and that of 
the bee also. The bee long ago learned to recognize 

(111) 



112 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



these brightly colored parts as sign-boards directing 
it to the nectar below. The pleasant scent or odor 
serves the same purpose. 

166. There are five petals in the peach-blossom, all 
separate, but in the morning-glory they are united. 
Whether united or separate, taken together they are 
termed corolla. (Fig. 53.) Just below the corolla there are 
usually five small green leaves which are named sepals, 
and, when taken together, the calyx. The corolla and 




Peach-blossom cut open, to show the parts of Calyx and corolla of Mom- 

the flower. ing-Glory. 

Fig. 53. Peach-blossom and morning-glory. 

calyx were called the floral envelope by the older botan- 
ists. Inside of the corolla are a number of small yellow- 
ish masses on slender stalks. These yellowish bodies are 
called pollen cases, or anthers. When ripe, they produce 
the fine yellow dust, or pollen. In the center of the whorl 
of stamens is the pistil. There are three parts in the 
pistil. At the top it usually has a slightly knob-like 
portion called the stigma, covered with a thick, gummy 
liquid. The stigma is sticky, to catch and germinate the 
pollen brought from its own or other flowers. Below 
the stigma is a slender portion, the style, and then the 
swollen base, the ovary. The ovary is the part that 



The Office of- Flowers 



113 




At 3 p.m. At 8 a.m. the next morn- 

ing. 

Fig. 54. The opening of a flower of Kieffer pear, showing the unfolding of the 
parts in blooming. The flowers of pears and apples have five .styles and 
All natural size. From American Gardening. 



grows after the other parts of the flowers have fallen. 
It becomes the cherry with its seed, the pea pod, the 
corn grain, the pecan with hull, etc, 

167. Use of the Parts of the Flower. Now that we have 
examined a flower and learned to recognize the parts, we 
want to know what these parts do. We have already 
learned that the bright color of the corolla serves to guide 
the bee or butterfly, or other nefetar-^ating insect, to the 




i. Flowers of scarlet sage, showing how pollination takes place. 
A, Position of anther when the bee sips nectar; B, stigma (.st) in 
position to be pollinated. 



114 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



drop of food at the base of the ovary. When the bee 
enters the flower to gather bee-bread (pollen) and the 
honey, or nectar, at base of pistil, some of the pollen is 
lodged on its head and legs and body. When it enters 
the next flower, some of this pollen is caught by the 

stigma. (Fig. 55.) Many 
kinds of flowers are solely 
dependent on the going and 
coming of insects to bring 
about pollination and, there- 
fore, the formation of fruit 
and seed. We used to think 
that flowers had their gor- 
geous colors to please man's 
fancy. We now know that it 
is to attract the lowly in- 
sects. Usually, night-bloom- 
ing flowers are white and 
give off their odors more 
strongly at night (study the 
tuberoses, rain lilies, night- 
blooming cereus, moon-flow- 
ers, etc.), in order to attract 
the night-flying moths. Blue 
and red flowers are day 
bloomers. 

168. Growth of the Pollen 
Grains. The pollen grain is 
a very small body, consisting of one or two cells. 
When it is deposited on the moist stigma, it begins to 
grow a slender tube (pollen-tube) down into the ovary. 
169. Fertilization. The pollen-tube produces a small 
cell that contains a nucleus that passes into and unites 




Fig. 56. Diagrammatic section of 
ovary and ovule at time of fertili- 
zation, m, micropyle; k, egg cell; 
The pollen tube has grown down 
through the style, between the 
walls of the ovary and ovule, to 
the egg cell, k, of the embryo sac. 




"LAST ROSE" 
A Hybrid Produced by Prof. T. V. Munson, Combining the Fox Grape 
of the North, PosTOAK Grape of Southwest, and WinE Grape of Europe 




The result of pollenizing the Herbert grape with different varieties. 

1, By Niagara, 4, By Herbert, 7, By Eldorado, 

2, By Worden, 5, By Brighton, 8, By Lindley, 

3, By Catawba, 6, By Merrimack, 9, By Salem. 

After Beach, New York Experiment Station. 



The Office of Fhwers 



115 



with the female cells in the ovule. (Fig. 56.) This pro- 
cess is called fertihzation or fecundation. When fertili- 
zation takes place, the fruit is "set" and the ovary 
begins to grow. The corolla, stamens, etc., wither and 
fall away. If fertilization does not take place, the entire 
flower withers and dies in most cases, — the exceptions 
being the fleshy seedless fruits, as seedless grapes and 
oranges. 

170. The Growth of the Fruit and Seeds. After fertili- 
zation, the ovary and, in many plants, other adjacent 
parts, begin to grow rapidly. The reserve food of the 
stems moves rapidly through the little twig that sup- 
ported the flower into the fruit. The fruit contains the 
seed. Seed production exhausts the plant. Nearly all 
the reserve food passes into the seed and fruits. Often 
more than half of the substance of a plant is collected 
into the seeds, as in common field corn. 

171. Importance of Pollination. Pollination and fecun- 
dation are necessary for the growth of the fruits and 
seeds, except in some kinds of seedless fruits, like the 
banana. In some varieties of strawberries the pollen 
is not produced in sufficient quantity to cause the fruit 
to set. In such cases it is usual to plant varieties pro- 
ducing pollen freely, in alternate' rows. (Fig. 57). The 
bees, going back and 
forth from one variety 
to the other, carry 
sufficient pollen to 
make the fruit set on 
the fine sorts. Some 
varieties of plums 

and pears, while pro- ^'S- ^'^- ^'°^^" °f ^^^ strawberry. ^ a 
. flower having both stamens and pistils; a, 

ducmg pollen, are flower of a kind having pistils only. 




116 



Elementary principles of Agriculture 



sterile to their own pollen. Many varieties of grapes 
also do not set fruit when pollinated with their own 
pollen. The illustration facing page 115 shows the 




Fig. 58. Injurious effect of self-pollination shown in pile at right. After 
Hartley, United States Department of Agriculture. 

effect of pollen of several varieties of grape on the 
Herbert grape. Some varieties make good pollinizers 
while others do not. If one is planting Herbert grapes, 
other varieties should be planted nearby to furnish 
pollen. In the same way, an orchard of Kieffer pears 
will be more fruitful if treds of other varieties are in 
the orchard. The bees will carry the pollen back and 
forth as they go from flower to flower. Sometimes in 
long-continued rainy weather during the flowering sea- 
son a full crop of fruit is not set, because the bees are 
unable to visit the flowers freely. 

172. Not All Plants Pollinated by Insects. Some plants, 
like wheat, oats, cotton, beans, etc., are ordinarily self- 
polhnated, that is, the pollen in the flower is produced 
so that it naturally falls on the stigma. Many other 
plants, as the pine trees, field corn, willows, etc., are 
solely dependent on the wind to carry the pollen from 
one flower to another. There are many interesting 
adaptations for bringing about polHnation, which cannot 
be discussed here. 



The Office of Flowers 



117 



173. Cross-Fertilization is Important in many plants. 
There are many plants that are normally self-fertilized 
and whose progeny do not seem to lack vigor. However, 
most plants give better seed from cross-fertilization, 
that is, having the pollen to come from different plants. 
Seeds originating from normal cross-fertilization are 
usually more vigorous, healthy and productive than 
seeds resulting from self-fertilization. The Illinois 
experiment station found * a difference of about ten 
bushels per acre in 
the yield of corn 
between seed pro- 
duced by cross- 
fertilization (Fig. 
58) and that by 
self-fertilization. 

C ont inuous 
self -fertiUzation 
leads to complete 
sterility in plants 
that are normally 
cross-fertilized, as 
corn, etc. Fig. 59. 
Darwin found 
that after eleven 
generations of 
self-fertilization 
the scarlet runner 
failed to set seed, 
while the plants 
produced by as 
many generations by cross-fertilization were much 
more healthy and fruitful than the original stock. 




Fig. 59. Effect of inbreeding. A, Cross-bred; B, 
inbred five years. From Bulletin, Illinois Ex- 
periment Station. 



CHAPTER XVIII 



PRUNING AND TRAINING PLANTS 



174. The Pruning and Training of Plants have for their 
object the improving of the rehitions of the plant to 
the sunlight and air. They are very old arts, that were 
well developed before we understood how the sunlight 
and air were of use to the plant. 

175. The Effect of Pruning. The practice of improv- 
ing the usefulness of plants by removing some part is 
founded on the the principle that 
suppression of growth in one part 
stimulates growth in others. The 
manner and season of pruning 
govern the result. 

176. Pinching. If we should 
pinch out the terminal bud from 
a leafy branch during the rapid- 
growing season of spring, a^ shown 
in Fig. 60, it would result in a 
temporary check to the lengthen- 
ing of the branch and a more 
rapid swelling and better nourish- 
ing of the buds below. If '.only 
the tip were removed, probably 
only one of the buds left — the 
uppermost — would form a new 
shoot. This would soon grow out 
and take the place of the one 
removed. This pinching usually 

(118) 




Fig. 60. Pruning by 
pinching. 



Pruning and Training Plants 119 

gives a stocky growth to the branch and favors the 
formation of fruit-buds (^ 159). 

177. Summer Pruning of Blackberries. If tlie new 
shoots of blackberries be pruned off, the buds below 
will form several branches. As the fruit of the following 
season will be borne on this growth, we see how summer 
pruning may increase the fruitfulness of blackberries. 

178. Light Pruning in the Dormant Season stimulates 
branching. If a branch, like the one shown in Fig. 72 
on page 127, were primed at X, two, or possibly three, 
of the next lower buds might grow into fairly vigorous 
leafy branches, with many strong buds. If left unpruned, 
it would probably grow straight out, forming a slender 
shoot with very feeble side branches, too poorly nour- 
ished to form many fruit-buds. Thus we see that prun- 
ing may stimulate branching, thickening of the stems, 
and a freer formation of bearing wood (branches with 
flower-buds). This kind of pruning is often practiced on 
all kinds of orchard trees and berry plants, and is fre- 
quently referred to as ''cutting back" or "heading-in." 
This kind of pruning is quite necessary for the first few 
seasons' pruning of newly set orchards. 

179. Why Prune Plants? We see from the illustra- 
tion given that pruning may be used to (1) check growth, 
(2) induce branching, to give correspondingly more leaf 
surface. The latter causes the branches to be better 
nourished and, hence, to grow thicker and form more 
fiower-buds. (See Tj 159.) Any kind of pruning that 
retards growth tends to increase fruitfulness and a bet- 
ter ripening of the branches. Pruning is sometimes ob- 
jected to, with the idea that nature knows what is best 
for the plant. Persons who advocate no pruning forget 
that orchard plants are grown in an environment that 



120 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



leads to an unusual development of the branches, and 
that such unusual growth does not favor the develop- 
men of fruitfulness (T| 159). Practical experience has 
long proven that the proper pruning of orchard trees 
makes them fruitful and profitable. Pruning is not 
merely removing so many branches or brush. The 
pruning should be done at the place that will pro- 
duce the desired result. Herein lies the value of an 
understanding why and how pruning should be done. 

180. Pruning to Stimulate Growth. Sometimes a 
plant or tree will cease to make the normal amount of 
healthy growth. If such condition is not the result of 
improper soil conditions, very severe pruning of the 
branches may bring about a renewal of active growth. 
Very old orchard trees are sometimes improved by a se- 
vere pruning. Pruning of orchard trees or shade trees 
may be overdone, producing such a shock that the plant 
is weakened rather 

than stimulated. 

181. Pruning to 
Hasten or Delay Ma- 
turity. Pruning to 
hasten maturity is sel- 
dom practiced except 
on nursery stock (re- 
moving the leaves), 
or on tobacco plants. 
It is usual to remove 
the seed -pods from 
flowering plants, such 
as sweet peas, etc., in 
order to prolong the 

flowering period. The Fig. 61 An example of thinning. After Goff. 




Pruning and Training Plants 



121 



food substance that 
would be used in ma- 
turing the seed is used 
to build new flower- 
buds. 

182. Pruning to Pro- 
tect Plants from dis- 
ease and mechanical 
injury is often neces- 
sary. Dead branches 
may fall and do much 
injury to the other 
limbs unless removed; 
or, they may become 
diseased by the fungi 
of decay and transmit 
the disease to the 
heart-wood of the 
trunk, thus mak- 
ing the plant 
weaker. Fig. 62. 
Dead or diseased 
branches, such 
as pear blight, 
should be cut off 
below the dis- 
eased part, and 
burned to prevent 
the spread of the 
disease. 

183. Thinning 
Fruit is a form of 
pruning. It often 





Fi" 



62. Effect of improper prurn.iii. i .i^ larger 
stump became diseased and the heart-wood 
in turn. The fungus mycelium caused the 
heart-wood to decay, as shown in the cross- 
section. The fruiting fungus is shown at A. 
From photographs by Prof. Geo. F. Atkinson. 



122 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



happens that a fruit tree will set more fruit than it 
should mature. Nature causes many of these young 
fruits to fall off, but not always sufficiently. Where 
too much fruit is left on the branches, the trees "over- 
bear," with the result that they do not prove fruitful in 
the season following. All the reserve food is used up in 
maturing the crop and, therefore, flower-buds are not 
formed. (See ^\ 159.) Another good reason for thinning 
is found in better quality of the fruit. A dozen good 
peaches will sell for more than a gallon of "pie peaches." 
184. Root-pruning. In healthy plants there is a 
balance between root-surface and leaf-surface. If a 
plant is growing too vigorously, it may be checked by 
running a spade into the ground to sever some of the 
roots. 




Fig. 63. Tree properly pruned 
before setting out 



Fig. 64. A badly shaped top, due to 
not cutting back when set out 



Pruning and Training Plants 



123 





Fig. 65. A, cutting too far above the bud; B, cut- 
ting too close; C, the cut as it should be; D, 
removal of a branch, the cross-line indicating 
the proper place for the cut. 



185. Pruning Transplanted Plants. In transplanting 
plants many of the roots are destroyed, thus destroying 
a natural balance. Transplanted plants, especially 
woody ones, should 
have all injured 
and extra-long 
roots removed and 
the top cut back 
correspondingly. 
(Figs. 63 and 64.) 

186. How to 
Make the Cuts in 
Pruning. When a 
branch is removed, 
we expose a part of 
the cambium and woody portions. Unless this is quickly 
healed over, the wound may become diseased, and the 
entire plant, in turn, before the callus grows over the cut 
surface. It is important, therefore, that, in pruning, noth- 
ing but sharp instruments be used, so that the cuts will 
be smooth. Not only should suitable tools be used, but 
care should be exercised to make the cuts so that the 
least amount of callus will be needed to close the wound. 
Callus cells are nourished by the reserve food. This 
suggests that the line of cut should be close to the sup- 
plies of reserve food. If a small branch is to be cut off, 
make the cut close to a bud, as shown in Fig. 65 C. The 
bud will grow out and the cut will heal over. If cut too 
far above the bud. A, a dead stub will remain that cannot 
be healed over. If cut too close to the bud, B, the bud 
will die, and we have a stub the full length of the inter- 
node. Side branches should be pruned close up to the 
main stem, D. 



124 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



Roots of trans- 
planted plants 
should be se- 
verely pruned. It 
is not the length 
of the roots left 
that favor the 
plant, but the 
quickness with 
which new 
branches with 
root -hairs are 
formed. Severe 
pruning pro- 
motes vigorous 
branching in 

many plants, notably the strawberry, celery, etc. 

187. In Removing Large Limbs, extra care should be 

taken to get the cuts at the proper place and angle. 









~r'-T~\ 




/-^ - , 








/ 








*^^^^^^ 


/ l| 


f 


4k 


;|l -V 







66. ShowiiiLC ijrn|ier po^iiidii anil angle of cut 
to use in removing large limbs. 




Fig. 67. 



Fig. 68. 



Jf ig. 67. fig. 6S. Hg. 69 

Healing of properly made cuts. Photographs by Prof. F. A. Waugh. 



Pruning and Training Plants 



125 



Figs. 66, 67 and 68 are good examples. We have already 
noticed the bad results from improper cuts, as shown in 
Fig. 62. (See 1 59.) 

188. Pruning Orchard 
Trees. Before we can intel- 
ligently prune even young 
orchard trees, it is neces- 
sary to decide on the ar- 
rangement of the branches 
desired in the matured tree. 
Whatever the number 
and arrangement of the 
branches, they should be 
low enough to allow the 
fruit to be gathered easily, 
and high enough not to 
interfere with the easy care 
and cultivation of the 
ground. Some prefer to 
have the outline of the 
pear trees pyramidal, with 
a central supporting trunk, 
such is shown in Fig. 70. 
For most orchard trees, 
possibly for pears also, it is 
preferable to have a number 
of strong branches starting out from two to four feet 
from the ground. That portion from which the leading 
branches start is called the head. This gives an open 
center to the tree and allows more light to the smaller 
interior branches, and keeps even the top of the tree 
within reach. Fig. 71 shows the framework of an open- 
headed tree. Fig. 72 shows the starting of such a head, 




Fig. 70. 



Pyramidal form of top. 



126 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



and Fig. 73 further thickened and made stocky by 
"heading in." The branches should not start out from 
the same place, as illustrated in Fig. 74. Such branches 
often split out when strong winds prevail. 




Fig. 71. Open-headed tree; vase form of top. 

189. Pruning and Training Grape-vines. The stem, 
of the grape is too weak to stand without support. In 
nature it grows over the outer branches of trees, some- 
times forming a canopy over the tops of small trees. 
Cultivated grapes are given supports made with posts 
and smooth wire. In order to keep the bulk of the vines 
within limits and to increase their fruitfulness, they are 
severely pruned every winter. This heavy pruning 




Fig. 72. Starting of an open-headed tree. 




Kig. 73. It IS usually desirable to 
head-in young trees for two or 
three years after planting; it 
makes them stockier. 



Fig. 74. Improperly trained. The 
limbs start too close together. 
The first big crop will split off 
some of them. 



128 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



makes the new branches grow very vigorously, but, as 
the fruit in grapes is borne on the new wood, this is 
very desirable. (See ^ 157.) 

The growth of the vine for the 
first season after transplanting is 
cut back to a single shoot, for 
at least four or five feet. This is 
tied up to the central wire and 
forms the permanent stock, or 
stem. In pruning, after the first 
year, from two to four arms, or 
branches, are left to produce the 
bearing wood. The number and 
length of the arms will vary with 
the vigor of the plants. Weak- 
growing vines are usually left 
with only two or three arms. 
The most desirable form of grape trellis is that shown 
in Fig. 76, known as the Canopy, or Munson trellis. 
This kind of trellis allows more leaves to be exposed to 
the light, and gives more color and flavor to the fruit. 




Fig. 75. Y-system of pruning 
and training grapes. 




Fig. 76. Munson system of training and trellising grapes. 



CHAPTER XIX 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 

190. How Plants Propagate. Plants propagate natu- 
rally by seeds and by the formation of special parts, 
which become separated and independent of the parent 
plant, as bulbs in onions, stolons or runners in straw- 
berries, tubers (thickened stems) in Irish potatoes, and 
by roots, as in the sweet potatoes, and in many other 
special ways. These are natural methods of multipli- 
cation, and take place without man's assistance. Often 
man provides the conditions which favor multiplication 
in these ways. We have already mentioned the impor- 
tant conditions to be controlled in causing the embryo 
plants of sprouting seeds to grow. The other natural 
processes of multiplication, i. e., by tubers, bulbs, etc., 
are matters of every-day knowledge, and are used for 
propagating a variety of plants. We speak of the former 
as propagation by seeddge, and the latter as propagation 
by division. 

191. Seedage. In preparing land for seeds, it is not 
sufficient that the seed-bed provide simply the conditions 
favorable for germination, but should be such as is de- 
manded by the nature and peculiarities of the plant. 
Thorough and deep pulverization is desirable for all 
kinds of plants. Make a good seed-bed. It should be 
done long enough before planting to allow for a thorough 
settling of the sub-surface soil, for many crops, such as 
wheat, corn, and other grains, do best on a settled seed- 
bed. In planting, therefore, it is necessary to know the 

I (129) 



130 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

special requirements of the crop. Quick-growing annuals 
and root-crops do best on a very loose seed-bed. Sugar 
beets become fibrous, and may be pushed out of the 
ground if the roots reach a hard subsoil. The depth of 
covering the seeds often has a great influence not only 
on the promptness of germination, but, also, on the 
fruitfulness of the crop. The distance between the seeds 
must be such that there is proper room for the develop- 
ment to the size desired at maturity, or for transplant- 
ing.* 

192. Propagation by Seedage and by Division Com- 
pared. The embryos in seeds are formed by the union 
of the nuclei of pollen and egg-cells, each from differ- 
ent individuals. In division, the new individual is 
formed from a part of the original plant, and, therefore, 
has only the characters of the original plant, that is, it 
is just like the original plant. Seed-propagated plants 
often partake of the characters of two individuals. 
This explains why seed-propagated plants are more 
variable than those propagated by division. For illus- 
tration, we may use blackberries. Fig. 77 shows the 
forms of the leaves of a number of blackberry plants 
grown by Luther Burbank from seeds of a single plant. 
Not all seeds are so variable as the example given, but 
they are, in most cases, variable, and the differences are 
only of degree. Therefore, in order to make sure of propa- 
gating the desirable qualities of some particular indi- 
vidual, resort is had to propagation by division. 

193. Propagation by Division may be by some of the 

*NoTE. — It is not advisable to discuss the needs of particular crops in a 
general text-book, but a number of interesting comparisons may be made in 
this connection by comparing (1) the season of seedage; (2) depth of planting and 
size of seed ; (S) how the depth of planting affects the potato crop ; (4) the 
duration of the roots in the soil; (.5) surface feeding and deep-feeding or tap- 
rooted plants. 




Fig. 77. Variation in leaves of hybrid blackberries, all from the seed of one 
plant. The stems of the plants varied just as much in shape, size and 
color. The parents of these forms were Oregon Evergreen and Lawton. 
Many new forms are produced in this way. A thousand or more forms may 
be produced and discarded without finding ev3n one having real merit. 
(t 212.) After photograph by Luther Burbank. 



132 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



natural processes, such as mentioned in paragraph 190, 
or by artificial processes, such as by layers or buds. 
The process of propagating by cuttings is known as 
cutting propagation. That by layers, as layering; that 
by inserted scions, as grafting; and that by inserted 
buds, as budding. They may be 
termed respectively, cuttage, lay- 
erage, graftage, and buddage. 

194. Layerage. When a branch 
or part is caused to form roots, and 
then severed from the parent 
plant, the plant produced is a 
layer. Fig. 78 shows bow a vine of 




Fig. 78. Propagating grapes by layering. 

the grape may be bent down, and covered at inter- 
vals with moist soil. Roots form at the nodes. (See 
Tl 68.) After these roots are sufficiently abundant, 
the vine may be cut into pieces, each piece having 
roots, and each planted in a new place as a complete 
plant. Layering is used to propagate grapes, raspberries, 
dewberries, and many other plants. Strawberries, dew- 
berries, blackcap raspberries, and many grasses, such 
as Bermuda grass, Johnson grass, some of the Musquite 
grasses, white clover, and some varieties of sweet pota- 
toes, naturally multiply by their prostrate stems, taking 
root at every node; and man, in practical agriculture. 



Propagation of Plants 



133 



greatly aids it by better preparing the soil. There are 
many plants that do not often multiply in this way, but 
will readily do so if their bodies or branches be bent down 
to the ground and covered with mellow soil. 

195. Cuttage. Rooted cuttings are parts of either 
stems or roots (or leaves, in some cases), cut into small 
pieces and kept under proper conditions until the for- 
mation of roots 
and shoots has 
taken place. Cut- 
tings of some 
kinds of plants 
put out roots very 
readily, as willow, 
dogwood, roses, 
grapes, some 
kinds of plums, 
and berry plants. 
Cuttings may be 
made from dor- 
mant or green 
growing shoots. Geraniums are propagated from green 
cuttings. Green cuttings should be kept moist at all 
times. 

196. Buddage. The callus-tissue of one plant may 
unite with the callus-tissue of another plant, if the two 
plants are of the same kind. Apple may be made to 
unite with apple; peach with peach; but not peack ./ith 
apple. However, peach will unite with plum, because 
peach and plum are closely related. In budding we have 
two parts: (1) A bud of the kind or variety to be propa- 
gated, and (2) a stock. The stock may be a rooted cutting 
or a seedling. In the common "T"-budding, a sharp 




Fig. 79. Cuttings: a, simple cutting; b, heel cut- 
ting; c, mallet cutting; d, single-eye cutting. 



134 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



knife is used to make a "T"-like slit through the bark, 
as shown in Fig. SOD. The corners may be raised and a 
bud, cut as shown at E, placed under the edges of the 
bark of the stock, as shown at G. The cambium layer 
of the bud is left in contact with the cambium layer of 
the stock. The wound is wrapped with soft twine, such 
as cotton yarn, or other suitable material, to hold the 

edges of the bark down and 
keep the bud from drying 
out as at /. After a week or 
ten days, depending on the 
condition of the shoot, the 
bud will be grown to the 
stock, if the work has been 
properly done. In this way 
we may cause one variety of 
plant to unite with another. 
Budding is easiest made and 
most likely to be success- 
ful if made while the stock 
is growing rapidly, or when 
the bark "slips," as it is 
called. 

197. Later Care of the 
Bud. After the bud has 
united with the stock, there 
is still much to be done before 
we have a new plant. The 
strings are removed when the 
bud has united with the 
stock. The later condition is 

shown by the bud remain- 
Fig 80. Steps in propagating . 

plants by budding mg green and plump. Alter 




Propagation of Plants 135 

a week to ten days, or when the string begins to be over- 
grown, it should be cut and removed. The next step 
is to force the bud into growth. This may be done im- 
mediately, as in "force budding," or left until the fol- 
lowing spring, when the top of the stock is cut oft" just 
above the inserted bud. This causes all the buds below 
to swell and many to form shoots. All the new sprouts 
except the one from the inserted bud should be rubbed 
off when they attain three to five inches in length. This 
causes the new shoot to grow very rapidly. Many per- 
sons leave a foot of stock stem to protect the young 
shoot. As soon as the latter is thoroughly established, 
the stock is pruned close down, as shown in Fig. 80/. 
The final result is that we have a stem of one variety 
growing on a common seedling stock. One may prop- 
agate millions of Elberta, or other variety of peach 
trees in this way, and every tree will bear peaches just 
like the parent variety. The great value of propaga- 
tion by budding is obvious. Choice varieties of peaches, 
plums and apricots are propagated by budding. It is 
often used for pears, apples, roses, and many other 
kinds of plants. Special methods of budding are used for 
pecans and other hardwood trees. 

198. Graftage. In propagation by grafting, two parts- 
are used, as in budding. One we call a stock, or root, and 
the other the scion, the latter coming from the plant to 
be propagated. The scion usually consists of a short 
piece of stem. In making the cleft-graft, the stock is 
split open smoothly, as shown in Fig, 81^. The lower 
end of the scion having been trimmed to a wedge is 
inserted as shown at A. Care should be taken to 
see that the cambium layer of stock and scion coincide, 
at least on one side. (Fig. 81C.) The graft is now wrapped 



136 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



with waxed cloth to prevent drying out. The two layers 
of cambium grow and unite, and the scion grows out into 
a vigorous shoot. Cleft-grafting is used in propagating 




1 



Fig. 81. Steps in propagating by graftage. A, B, and C, details of cleft graft; 
D, same for tongue graft. 

many kinds of plants, such as apples, pears, peaches, 
etc. If the graft is made below the ground on a rooted 
stock it is not necessary to wrap with waxed cloth. The 
moist soil, pressed firmly about the union, prevents 
drying out. 

199. In Tongue Grafting, we make a sloping cut on 
both scion and stock. (Fig. SID.) The tongue of one 
is slipped into the cleft of the other, care being taken 
to have the cambium layers together, at least on one 
side. In piece-root grafting, as is usual with pears and 
apples, the graft is wrapped to secure the two pieces in 
an unmovable union until the callus growth has had 
time to unite. They may be prevented from drying out 
by storing in moist sand or sawdust. It is usual to make 
the grafts during the winter months and plant them in 
the nursery rows early in the spring. (Fig. 82.) 



Propagation of Plants 



137 



200. Care of Buds and Grafts. There are many special 
ways of budding and grafting. All depend on the prop- 
erty of callus-tissue of two different plants to form a close 
living union. In making the cuts, nothing but the 
sharpest of knives should be used. Dull knives produce 
such mutilation that the cambium does not grow out 
and form the callus-tissue promptly, and, as a result, 
the graft or bud fails "to take." The dormant buds 
on the stock are inclined to form vigorous-growing 
sprouts, but should be rubbed off as explained in ^ 197. 

201. Transplanting Nursery Trees. Nursery trees, 
whether propagated from seeds, cuttings, buds, or 
grafts, are removed from the nursery rows and trans- 




t 111 imr>ei.\" row. 



138 Elementary Principles of Agriculture ' 

planted in orchards. In removing nursery stock, 
many of the roots are necessarily cut short. In trans- 
planting, the ends of all bruised or mutilated roots should 
be cut off smoothly and the top cut back to keep it in 
balance with the roots. Fig. 63 shows a one-year-old 
budded peach tree trimmed ready for transplanting. 
The young trees should be put into good-sized holes and 
loose, moist soil worked in around the roots, and tramped 
just sufficiently to hold the young tree in position. In 
transporting nursery stock, the roots should never be 
allowed to become dry. When trees are received from 
the nursery they should be set in trenches and dirt J 

thrown over the roots. If the soil is not moist it will be ■ 

well to apply water freely. 

It will usually be much better if young orchard trees 
are set in the place they are to grow in the fall months. 
They will thus have plenty of time to form new roots. 
Fall-planted trees usually put out their leaves earlier 
in the spring than trees planted in late winter. Young 
orchard trees should be especially well cared for during 
the first season after transplanting. (See T[ 61.) 



CHAPTER XX 



IMPROVING PLANTS AND SEEDS 



202. Domesticated Plants. The cultivated plants 
were originally wild sorts. Some of them have been 
cultivated so long and so improved by man's care that 
the original or wild form is not certainly recognized, such 
as wheat, potato, onion, cabbage, etc. Other sorts have 
been brought into cultivation in comparatively recent 
times, and the original wild form is well known, as the 
tomato, carrot, chrysanthemum. Cultivated forms are 
vastly superior to the wild forms. The strawberries of 
our gardens are more palatable and productive than the 
wild sorts. The cultivated tomato is much larger and 
firmer than the original wild form. Wherever a plant 
has been long under cultivation it has been greatly 
modified. We may ask, "How are these improvements 
secured?" 

203. Variation in Plants is the starting point for 
improvement. Scientists have a theory that all the 
plant and animal forms de- 
scended from some common 
ancestor. This theory of the 
origin of living forms, called the 
"theory of evolution," finds its 
support in the similarity oi 
many forms, suggesting rela- 
tionship, and the further fact 
that, through natural varia- ^,, . 

' ° Fig. 83. Old-time and new-time 

tion, new forms are constantly forms of tomato. After Bailey. 

(139) 




140 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

coming into existence. Plant -breeders try to cause 
variations. 

204. Fixing Variations. Variations in cultivated 
plants more often resemble earlier and less valuable 
forms. Where improvement is desired, great numbers of 
individuals should be observed and a few of the most 
promising saved for seed. This is called selection. When 
seeds are saved from individual plants with desirable 




Fig. 84. A chance for selection. The two kernels in the center are the best. 
The two outside grains at each end of the upper row are too short. The 
two outside ones in the lower row are too pointed at the tip, showing lack 
of vitality. 

characters, they should be planted away from other 
plants of the same kind. Usually, only a few specimens 
of the progeny will retain the good qualities of the 
parent. Selections should again be made. By repeated 
selection, a large per cent may be made to "come true 
to seed." This is called "fixing the type." Where the 
crop is grown for seed-, the field should be gone over and 
all plants that are noticeably inferior or not true to type 
should be removed. This is what the seed-grower calls 
"rogueing." 



Improving Plants and Seeds 141 

205. "Natural Selection." The original wild species 
owe their form and habits to the continuous selections 
which wild nature makes. Wild plants must grow in 
competition with other plants and struggle with them 
for the conditions necessary for growth and the preser- 
vation of their seeds. The size, form and character of 
the leaves, stems, flowers, fruits and seeds, are all im- 
portant features in the struggles for nature's favors. 

206. No Improvement Without Variation. No two 
plants are exactly alike. The offspring from the same 
individual are not alike. This is the fact of "variation." 
In some forms the variations are more obvious than in 
others. As a rule, variations in wild plants are less fre- 
quent than in cultivated forms. Variations may be 
desirable or undesirable and progress comes from propa- 
gating only the best selections. Improvements could not 
be made if all individuals were alike. 

207. Variations Are Not Permanent. The Concord 
grape is a variation of the wild fox grape of Massachu- 
setts, discovered by E. W. Bull about 1850. It has 
been propagated by division ever since and is still the 
same grape, because our Concord grape-vines of today 
are only parts of the original plant. However, when the 
seeds of Concord grapes are grown, we get the original 
wild fox grapes. Many such seedlings have been grown, 
but none have yet been secured that are the same as the 
parent vine, although some of them are very nearly like 
it. DeVries had a variety of corn, the ears of which had 
eight to twenty-two rows of grains. The average num- 
ber of rows was between twelve and fourteen. He 
planted an ear having sixteen rows and found the aver- 
age in the crop to be fifteen rows per ear. He then planted 
some ears having twenty rows and continued this for 



142 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

six generations. At the end of this time the average of 
the variety was twenty rows, whereas it had originally 
been only thirteen. The lowest number of rows on any 
ear was twelve and the highest twenty-eight, a number 
that had never been observed in the parent variety. 
The average and the actual number of rows had been 
greatly increased by continuous selection through six 
years; yet, when left for three years without selec- 
tion, the average number of rows was back to thirteen. 
Other instances might be mentioned, showing the in- 
constancy of varieties propagated from seed. 

208. Perpetuating Desirable Variations. How may a 
desirable variation be perpetuated? There are two ways: 
(a) Propagating the Plant by Division, (b) By Repeated 
Selection toward an Ideal Type. Many kinds of plants are 
more conveniently propagated from seed, such as the 
grains, cotton, garden vegetables, and the like. We have 
seen how the number of rows of grains on an ear of corn 
was increased. Had the selections been continued for 
ten or more years, the new characters would have been 
more fixed. 

(c) Special Methods. In addition to continual selec- 
tion, plant-breeders sometimes resort to inbreeding to 
fix variations. Plants that normally inbreed, like oats, 
wheat, cotton, and others, are much less variable than 
kinds that are normally cross-fertilized, as corn. 

209. How to Stimulate Variation. While seed-propa- 
gated plants are variable, in fact too much so for the 
average grower, the plant-breeder desires to bring about 
the most decided variations possible in the hope that 
some form of unusual value may be secured. The means 
usually relied upon are: 

(a) Intensive Culture. Plants grown under the most 



Improving Plants and Seeds 143 

favorable conditions are thought to produce a more 
variable offspring than wild or uncultivated plants. 

(b) By Hybridizing Dissimilar Forms, such as dif- 
ferent varieties, or species. Many valuable varieties of 
fruits have been secured by cross-fertilizing individuals 
belonging to two different species. 

We have already noticed the variations in hybrid 
blackberries (1| 192). As a rule, the more dissimilar the 
parents, the greater are the variations in the seedlings. 
In choosing parents for hybrids, it is well to consider the 
characters of each; for it is possible, though often quite 
difficult, to combine the good quaUties of two forms in 
a single individual. 

210. Some Notable Results. Professor Munson found 
that the varieties of the wine grapes, grown with such 
success in Europe, and the fox grapes, in the eastern 
United States, were not suited to the climate of the 
Southwest. He sought to combine the hardiness of the 
native wild grapes of Texas with the fine flavor and 
fruitfulness of the foreign species by hybridizing. Many 
valuable varieties of grapes well suited to Texas con- 
ditions have been produced in this way. Some of the 
most popular are the Carman, Fern, Muench, and 
America, each having one-half of the native Post-oak 
grape blood. The Kieffer pear is a hybrid between the 
Bartlett and Chinese Sand pears. The Bartlett pear has 
a delightful flavor but often suffers from blight. The 
Sand pears are poor in flavor but quite hardy and fruit- 
ful. Many fine varieties of plums, blackberries and dew- 
berries have been produced by hybridization. 

211. Hybridization is accomplished by placing the 
pollen of one variety or species upon the stigma of 
another. To prevent self-pollination, the anthers should 



144 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



be removed before the pollen is mature. (Fig. 85.) In 
the flowers of wheat, oats, peas, and some grapes, polli- 
nation takes place before the flowers open; hence, in such 
plants it is necessary to remove the anthers very early. 




Fig. 85. Buds or "squares" of cotton. 1. Flower-bud nearly ready to open; 
2, parts removed to expose the stamens; 3, stamens removed to prevent 
self-pollination. After Hartley, United States Department of Agriculture. 

After the anthers have been removed, the stigma should 
be protected from chance-flying pollen by covering the 
flower with a paper bag. The sack may be removed 
when the pollen is to be placed on the stigma. The latter 
may be accomplished by a clean, moistened finger, 
camel's-hair brush, or other means suited to the plants 
in hand. For success in artificial cross-pollination, one 
should fully understand the structure and habits of 
flowers in both parents. 

212. The Hybrid Seedlings. The seedlings from hybrid 
seed should be closely observed. Out of a great number 
of individuals, only a few, possibly none, will possess the 
desired characters. Even though none are found, it is 
often desirable to grow their seed in the same way for the 
desired form may appear in the second generation. 



Imvroving Plants and Seeds 



145 



When a specimen is found having merit, it should be 
given special care and properly propagated (T| 208). 
When a new form is secured and has its characters so 
fixed until they ''come true," it is called a variety. 

213. Examples of the Value of New Varieties. The 
improvement of our cultivated plants has been gradual 
because but few men have made it a business to look 
for and select out the best forms. Many men, however, 
have secured decided results in a few years by following 
scientific methods. The work of Professor Munson has 
already been mentioned. Hays was able to secure a 
strain of Minnesota blue-stem wheat that produced 
five bushels more per acre. When wheat is worth 80 
cents, such seed represents a superior earning value of 
$4 per acre. Many other examples of the great value 







i^waai 



Tavlor 



Iron 



Black 



Fig. 86. Iron cowpea vs. Black and Taylor, showing comparative resistance to 
the Wilt and Root Knot. From Bulletin United States Department of 
Agriculture. 



146 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

of propagating seed from desirable individuals might 
be given. The old varieties have, in many cases, been 
crowded out by the introduction of new and better 
forms. Special attention should be called to the Elberta 
peach, many excellent varieties of grapes, Austin dew- 
berry, Gonzales and other varieties of plums. Triumph 
cotton, and other forms that have added immensely 
to the value of the harvests of the world's staples. A 
variety of the cowpea has been discovered that is not 
only resistant to "wilt," but to the little worm which 
causes the formation of knots on the roots of other 
varieties. (Fig. 86.) 

213a. Selecting Seed Oats.* Suppose that it is desired to im- 
prove the quaUty and yielding power of oats. The first question 
to be answered is, ''What quality has the oat that makes it valued? 
For what may the oat plant be used, and what does it supply?" 
In the South it is sown in the fall and the field is used for wintor 
grazing. It makes a crop of grain which is thrashed and the straw 
and the grain are both used. The grain has most value so that in 
selecting oats we usually select for fine grain. 

Next let us find out what an oat gram is. If we carefully hull 
an oat grain we find a hull composed of two or more pieces, and a 
true seed. If we examine a number of large grains we shall find that 
the large grain usually has a large seed. In selecting the seed then 
we will select the large grain. Now secure a bundle of oats harvested 
and bound just as they come from the fields. Let each student take 
a dozen heads as they come, spread them out on a table and note 

*The foregoing outline of the process of selecting seed oats and suggestions 
for testing the qualities in the plants of the progeny are given merely to illus- 
trate the more fundamental problems of seed improvement, and the common 
crops or garden plants. They may be carried out by any energetic boy or gifl 
in a comer of the garden with noticeable results in improving the plants. As an 
exercise for training the mind in observation, comparison, discrimination, and 
test of ideas, it will prove highly satisfactory to the teacher from the viewpoint 
of culture training as well as a practical study in "the relation values." Oats 
have been selected because they may be grown and matured during the school 
year. Local conditions may suggest other material. Some consideration should 
be given to the more important crops of the community, such as com, cotton, 
kafir corn, sugar-cane, rice, and the various kinds of fruits. 



Improving Plants and Seeds 147 

the differences in the heads. Now thresh out each head separately 
and put the grains from each head in a small bottle. Note differ- 
ences in color, size, shape, etc. What sorts do you consider the 
best oats? Why? Save the best four and take home and plant one 
seed at a time in drills one foot apart, and one foot in the drill. 
Plant seeds from each head separately, so that if they grow differ- 
ently it may be noticed. Compare the quality of the crop from the 
four different heads. If the school has a school garden they may 
be planted there. 

214. Effect of Cultivation. Cultivated plants are 
shielded from competition with other plants; they are 
planted in prepared ground, given plenty of space, and 
protected from many destructive agencies; their seeds 
are harvested, stored, and throughout the life of the 
plant they are given favorable opportunity to make 
vigorous growth. Cultivated plants are selected, not 
for their ability to propagate under unfavorable con- 
ditions, but because of their power to grow and fruit 
under favorable conditions. Wild plants do better under 
cultivation, but not in the same degree that improved 
varieties do. In selecting seeds for propagation, prefer- 
ence should be given to the forms which show the 
greatest yield under favorable but practical conditions. 
The local conditions, whether clue to peculiarities of 
climate or conditions produced by culture, often affect 
the result quite as much, possibly more, than the kind 
of seed. A variety may yield very satisfactory harvests 
in one place, and yet be quite unsuited to other locali- 
ties or uses. It has been found to be quite generally 
true that when equal care is given to seed selection 
home-grown seeds are better yielders. 



CHAPTER XXI 



FUNGUS DISEASES OF PLANTS 



215. Many plants of the farm and garden are subject 
to attack by various kinds of minute plants, known as 
fungi. The "rusts" of small grains, plum trees and cot- 
ton, arefamiUar examples. Also, the "mildew" of grapes 
and roses. These fungi are thread-like plants. Some 
form their thread-like bodies inside of the plant tissues, 
such as the "smuts" and "rusts." (Fig. 87.) Other 
forms, like the mildew, grow on the surface of the 

leaves and stems, but 
send little root -like 
branches (Fig. 89) into 
the plant tissue to 
absorb its substance. 
Another class of fungi, 
known as bacteria, 
never form "threads," 
or hyphce, as they are 
called by the botanist, 
but only cells. Some 
species of bacteria cause 
disease. The cells are 
formed inside of the 
plant body. 

216. How Fungus 

Fig. 87. ^, head of oats affected with smut, •ni-^*« n ,.*■ Tu«:* "Cr^^^A 

the chaff being only partially destroyed; r'lantS Vret ineir J:'OOa. 

B, head of oats decidedly smutty, but 171 • 1 „j. u„, ^ +U^ 
having the chaff only partially destroyed; T UUgl ClO nOt nave the 

C, final stage of oat smut, showing con- „„„„.„ „Ui^^^»^U-r^1 ft\ AQ\ 

dition at harvest time green chlorophyl (II 48;, 

(148) 




Fungus Diseases of Plants 



149 



and, therefore, can not make their food like the algse and 
the higher green plants. They are called dependent plants. 
There are many kinds. Plants like the fungi are thought 
by scientists to be greatly changed algse that have lost 




Fig. 88. Spores, or seeds, of the fungus producing the "rust" of wheat. A, 
summer spores, or "red rust" stage; B, same germinating on surface of 
leaf; C, autumn spores, or "black rust" stage. Greatly magnified. 

the power of carbon assimilation, and are, therefore, 
dependent on host plants to supply the food they need. 
They are called independent plants. Many higher 
plants are dependent in the same way, such as the 
dodder, or "love vine." They grow under many con- 
ditions, but all must get their food from plant or animal 
substance. Species that get their food from living plants 
or animals are called parasites. Those that get their 
food from dead plant or animal remains are called 
saprophytes. Some species of fungi may get their food 
from either living or dead organisms. The red or black 
powdery mass which we call "rust" is only a mass of 
spores (one-celled seeds) of the fungus causing the 
disease. The body of the plant exists as a lot of threads 
inside of the host-plant and is not visible to the eye. 
When magnified by the microscope, these fine hyphse 
may be plainly seen. 



150 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 




217. How Fungi 
Propagate. Fungi prop- 
agate by minute cells, 
called spores. They cor- 
respond to seeds of 
higher plants. They 
require the same con- 
ditions for germina- 

Fig. 89. Germinating spores of the "Potato tion aS Seeds. Fig. 89 

Blight" fungus. Cross section through a , c j.i 

portion of a stalk. Two germinating ShOWS a SpOrC OI tue 
spores (a, b) piercing the epidermis, and x j. i t i j. • i. 

the threads penetrating the cells of the potatO blight gOrmmat- 

leaf. Highly magnifiedT .^^^ ^^ ^ j^^^^ _ ^^^^ ^^^^ 

thread soon enters the plant and absorbs the moisture 
and food substance of the potato leaf. It soon forms a 
crop of spores, sometimes in only a few days. These 
spores are blown to other 
plants, and soon a whole 
field will be blighted by the 
fungus. Most species of fungi 
grow on only one kind of 
plant. The fungus that 
causes grape mildew (Fig. 
90) does not grow on any 
other kind of plants but 
grapes. The fungus that 
causes the blasting of the 
ears and tassels of corn 
(corn smut) grows only on 
corn. The fungus that causes 
the smut of oats never at- 
tacks corn. However, the Fig. 90. Downy mildew of grape 
r XI J. 1 ji (Plasmopora viticold), showing 

fungus that produces the tuft of gonidiophores bearing 

, • 1 XX 1 gonidia, also intercellular myce- 

rust on grams also attacks uum. After Miiurdet. 




Fungus Diseases of Plants 151 

barberry bushes. A number of fungi known as "rusts" 
have more than one host-plant. The yellow rust of 
apple leaves is the same fungus that produces the so- 
called cedar apples on cedar trees. 

218. Not All Fungi Cause Disease. Some fungi are very 
useful, like the little bacteria that gather the free nitro- 
gen of the air for beans and clover plants; the yeast, 
used in making bread, and in making wines and beers. 
Some fungi are quite large, as the mushrooms and puff- 
balls. Certain kinds are highly esteemed as table deli- 
cacies, and are cultivated. Some species of mushrooms 
should not be eaten because they are poisonous. 

219. Preventing Fungus Diseases. There is no cure 
for the fungus diseases in plants. Prevention is the only 
safeguard against loss from parasitic fungi. This is 
accomplished in four ways: 

(a) Treating the Seeds with substances that destroy 
the disease-causing germs, as scab in potatoes, smut in 
oats and wheat. 

(b) Using Resistant Varieties. Not all plants are 
equally subject to the attacks of parasitic fungi. Some 
varieties are much less injured than others. (Fig. 86.) 
Many varieties of cultivated plants owe their value to 
their power to resist disease. 

(c) Sanitation. When crops are subject to a particu- 
lar disease, all the dead parts, trash and litter that 
harbor the spores, should be gathered up and burned. 

(d) By Using Fungicides. Fungi are poisoned by ex- 
tremely small amounts of copper salts, or sulphur in 
some cases, while green plants are not affected by small 
amounts. Preparations of copper salts in water are, 
therefore, used to spraj^ plants to protect them from 
attacks of fungi. A compound of copper sulphate (blue 



152 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 




Fig. 91. The "brown rot" of plums and 
peaches leaves " mummies " on the 
trees. 




Fig. 92. Black rot oi grape may be pre- 
vented by timely use of Bordeau.^ 
mi.xture 



vitriol) known as Bor- 
deaux mixture (given in 
the Appendix) is most 
often used. The plants are 
sprayed with a very dilute 
solution, so that a thin 
film of the poison covers 
the leaves, stems, buds, 
and fruit of the plant. 
Spores on the surface of 
thoroughly sprayed plants 
are killed, as likewise 
others that fall on the 
plants. It is often neces- 
sary to make several ap- 
plications, to replace the 
film of spray washed 
away by rains. Sulphur, 
formaldehyde, and other 
substances, are used for 
special diseases. 

220. General Methods 
in Using Sprays. Where 
efforts are made to pre- 
vent the attacks of fungi 
by sprays, it is important 
to know how and when 
infection takes place. No 
general rules can be given. 
The time and manner of 
applying the fungicide 
must be suited to the 
conditions peculiar to the 



Fungus Diseases of Plants 153 

disease. The agricultural experiment station bulletins 
and special books on spraying will supply full informa- 
tion. 

221. Diseases of Orchard Fruits, such as brown rot of 
peaches and plums (Fig. 91); mildew and black-rot of 
grapes (Fig. 92) and other common diseases are con- 
trolled by spraying with Bordeaux mixture. The first 




Fig. 93. The apple scab may be prevented by spraying. 
From Cornell University Junior Naturalist. 

spraying should be before the buds swell, and repeated 
every few weeks thereafter until the crop is safe. 

222. Grain Smuts. The smuts of oats and wheat 
(Fig. 87) may be prevented by treating the seed before 
planting. The spores become lodged on the grain on the 
hull or fine hairs. When the seeds are planted, the spores 
germinate with the seed. It is peculiar, but true, that 
this fungus can infect the plant only in the seedling 
stage. Therefore, it is plain that, to prevent the blasting 
of the oats by smut, we must destroy the smut 
spores on the seed before planting. This may be done 
without injury to the grain by treating the seeds with 



154 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

dilute solutions of formaldehyde, or other prepar- 
ations. 

222a. Preventing Smuts in Grain Crops. Full directions for 
treating i-mall grains to prevent smut may be obtained from 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 507, U. S. Department of Agriculture, or 
other bulletins from your State Experiment Station. Other 
bulletins give information on the control of smut cf sorghum and 
other crops. Every class in agriculture should make tests on smut 
prevention. 

223. Potato Scab may be prevented by soaking the 
seed potatoes in a two- or three-per-cent solution of 
formaldehyde for one or two hours. This destroys the 
fungus in the scabs and cracks on the potatoes. 

224. Cotton-root Rot is a serious disease of cotton on 
heavy clay lands. The disease does not attack cotton on 
loose, sanely soils. This fact has suggested the practice 
of early and deep breaking of land to prevent the growth 
of the fungus. Results are favorable to the practice. 
Rotation is also a means of holding this disease under 
control. The destructive effects of the cotton-root-rot 
fungus is often confused with damage due to alkali. The 
soft, spongy condition of the roots of plants killed by 
this fungus is very characteristic. This fungus also 
attacks okra, orchard trees, shade trees, etc., in fact 
nearly all classes of plants except members of the grass 
family, such as corn, small grains, sorghum, etc. It is 
plain therefore that, if such plants as the small grains, 
corn, etc., are grown on the land, the fungus will be 
starved out, so that cotton^ or other susceptible plants 
may be again grown. It is important that weeds that 
might harbor the fungus should be destroyed. Fields 
will rarely become seriously infested with this fungus if 
proper rotations are made. No variety of cotton has yet 
been discovered that resists the attacks of this fungus. 



CHAPTER XXII 



INSECTS ON THE FARM 



225. There are a great many kinds of insects found 
on the farm, many of them useful, while other kinds are 
injurious because they feed on plants, stored products, 
and domestic animals, according to the habits of the 
pest in each case, and even our own comfort and health 
are affected by various forms of these creatures. Not all 
the small animals are properly called insects. Insects have 
just six legs, and their bodies are made up of three parts 
that may be easily distinguished: First, the head; second, 
the thorax, or middle part; and third, the abdomen. The 
spiders, ticks, mites and scorpions have eight legs and 
never have wings. 
The common sow- 
bug has fourteen 
legs and is classed 
with the crabs and 
craw-fish rather 
than true insects. 

226. Changes of 
Form in the Growth 
of Insects. Nearl} 
all species of in- 
sects have foul 
forms in passing 
from the egg to the 

mature insect It ^'^' ^^' ^^^^^^ ''^ '■^^ ''^® history of the June- 
... bug. After Howard Division of Entomology, 

IS like the story of united states Department of Agriculture. 

(155) 




156 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



"The House that Jack Built." The female lays the egg; 
the egg hatches into the larva (caterpillar, grub, or mag- 
got) ; the larva feeds and grows and turns into a chrysalis, 
or pupa, and from this pupa comes the adult insect. 
Take the common May-beetle, or June-bug as an ex- 
ample. (Fig. 94.) The adult lays the egg among grass 
roots during spring or summer. From this then hatches 
a small larva (white grub, or "grub-worm"), w^hich feeds 
on the roots in the soil. It grows rapidly, and, at the 
end of the second season, goes into a dormant state and 
changes into a pupa, and, at the end of two years, emerges 
from the ground as a May-beetle, or June-bug. In the 
larval stage, the June-bug often does much damage to 
the roots of grasses, corn, wheat and garden plants, 
while the adult feeds on the leaves of trees — often fruit 
trees. 

The caterpillar stage in insect development is quite 




Fig. 95. Plum curculio. A, larva inside of peach; B, mature insect depositmg 
egg. After Quaintance, United States Department of Agriculture. 



Insects on the Farm 157 

unlike the mature butterfly stage. Again, only the closest 
watching of the life history of the "wiggle-tail" convinces 
us that it is a mosquito in another form. The little 
"worm" (larva), found in the plum, is quite different 
from the shy curculio beetle that laid the egg. (Fig. 95.) 
Grasshoppers, squash bugs and crickets are examples of 
insects which attain inaturity by gradual growth with- 
out distinct stages. (See Fig. 99.) 

227. How Insects Differ from Other Animals. Insects, 
like the frogs and snakes, are cold-blooded animals. 
The temperature of their bodies changes with that of 
the air or water, in whichever they happen to be. When 
cold weather comes, many kinds find shelter under fallen 
leaves, sticks, or may burrow into the ground and there 
remain quiet until warm weather returns. This way of 
passing the winter is called Mbernation. While hibernat- 
ing, they may be frozen stiff, or the eggs and larvae may 
be frozen; but when the weather becomes favorable, 
many kinds will move about just as lively as ever. 
Severe freezing may kill some, but many will survive. 
The propagation of some sorts is dependent on the 
ability of the eggs to withstand the winter. Higher 
animals have the bony skeleton inside of the body, but 
insects have the hard bony part on the outside. The 
muscles of insects are attached to the outer body wall and 
not to internal bones, as in other animals. Insects do 
not breathe through a mouth, but have little breathing 
pores along the sides of the body. The nerves of the 
insect that detect odors and guide it to its kind and food 
are usually in the little "feelers," or antennce, or sometimes 
in the segments of the legs. 

Some species of insects die soon after laying eggs, 
often before the eggs hatch, as the tent caterpillar; others 



158 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



may live on through a longer period, laying eggs con- 
tinuously, as in the case of the cotton boll-weevil. 

228. The Food of Insects. Insects are very peculiar 
about the food they eat. Just like the many species of 
parasitic fungi, each species feeds, usually, on just one 
kind of plant or animal, or on closely related plants or 
animals. In such cases we speak of the plant as the 
"host" for a particular insect. The Colorado potato 




Fig. 96. Colorado potato beetle, a, eggs; b, larva; c, mature beetle. 
After Riley. 

beetle (Fig. 96) is a native of the West, living on the 
western species of nightshades. When the Irish potato 
was introduced, it found a plant closely akin to its regular 
food plants, and on which it thrives to such an extent 
that it takes its name from the new host-plant. Some- 
times there is a wide difference in the kinship of the host- 
plants. The feeding habits of the "boll-worm" of cotton, 
or the "ear-worm" of corn, the same insect in both cases 
(Figs. 97 and 103), is a striking example of a form which 
feeds on a number of different kinds of plants. When 



Insects on the Farm 



159 



insects do not find acceptable food-plants they die. 
Many insects are exclusively flesh-eating, such as the 
common "doodle-bugs," wasps, lady-bugs, and man^ 
species of wood ants. Mosquitos are a common form 
of blood-sucking insects. Many parasites are solely 
responsible for the spread of diseases. The ticks on cattle, 
which are somewhat related to true insects, are carriers of 
disease. Cattle do not have the splenic fever (sometimes 
called Texas fever) except when the germs are carried 
by ticks that bite them. The 
common bee lives on the 
nectar and pollen of flowers. 
It is not the only insect that 
lives on nectar. Most species 
of butterflies, moths, bum- 
blebees, etc., are nectar- 
loving insects. We have 
already learned that these 
insects are very useful in 
bringing about the pollina- 
tion of flowers. 

229. The Feeding Habits 
of Different Stages. The 
depredations upon plants 
and animals are made in 
various ways. Often the 
immature stages are more destructive than the adult. 
Most frequently it is the larval stage (caterpillar, grub, 
maggot) that depredate upon the plants. The Colorado 
potato-bug lays its eggs on the leaves. The young larvae 
are hatched out, therefore, right at the breakfast table. 
In the caterpillar stage, some species of insects occur in 
great numbers, and they are, hence, often spoken of as 




Fig. 97. Corn ear -worm or cotton 
boll -worm. After Quaintance, 
Bureau of Entomology, United 
States Department of Agricul- 
ture. 



160 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



"army worms," of which the "cotton army worm" is a 
common example in the South. Some caterpillars, 
known as cutworms, work only at night. When daylight 

comes, they are con- 
cealed under clods, and 
any trash that may be 
present. They are called 
"cutworms" because 
they have a habit of cut- 
ting off young plants 
near the ground. They 
are the caterpillar stage 
of several kinds of night- 
flying moths. (Fig. 98.) 
Thus we see that there 
are some insects which 
are perfectly harmless 
in the adult stage, but 
The pupal stage is inac- 




Cutworm and moth. After 
Howard. Bureau of Entomology, 
United States, Department of Agri- 
culture. 



whose larvae do great damage 
tive, and requires no food. 

230. How Insects Get Their Food, (a) Bi/ Living 
inside the Plant. Internal Feeders. It quite often hap- 
pens that the egg is deposited inside of some part of the 
plant and the larva develops there, as in the case of the 
larva of the plum gouger. As the larva is inside of the 
plant (Fig. 95), it cannot be destroyed by any of the 
sprays, and, in such cases, effort is made to catch and 
destroy the adults before the eggs are laid. 

(b) External Feeders. Insects that feed directly on 
the leaves, fruits, etc., have mouth parts that are pro- 
vided with scissors-like jaws by which their food is cut 
from the plant. To destroy insects that feed in this way, 
it is sufficient to cover the leaves with some suitable 



Insects on the Farm 



161 



arsenic compound by sprays. When they eat the leaves, 
they consume enough of the poison to induce their 
death, Paris green, London purple, and arsenate of lead 
are the most usual poisons. Grasshoppers, potato bugs 
and army worms may be killed in this way. In some por- 
tions of Texas there are leaf-cutting ants, which attack 
trees and cut and carry off nearly all the leaves. These 



^M" 




Fig. 99. Squash bug. A, eggs on leaf; b, egg-shell; c, d, e, f, nymphs; g, adult. 
After Chittenden. Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

ants do not eat the leaves, but carry them into their 
underground nests and use them as a medium or soil 
on which to grow a fungus which they do eat. These 
ants are real "farmer insects," in that the food they eat 
is grown by their own efforts. Carbon bisulfide, poured 
into their nest, may sometimes destroy the colony, 
(c) By Sucking the Juices. We may distinguish 



1G2 Elewentary Principles of Agriculture 

other groups of insects by the way they get their food 
from the plant or animal. Instead of having jaws with 
which they may bite off and chew their food, their 
mouth parts are shaped into a kind of tube which they 
use to suck blood or sap, nectar or viscid matter. The 
squash-bug (Fig. 99) and the chinch-bug get their food 
by sucking. Plant lice, such as the green bug, and San 
Jose scale (Fig. 100) are also sucking insects. 




' ,. __| i^ ^ ^ ■;_ 

1 lu; lUU .^Jii Jose scale on plum. .4, natural size; 6, luaijuitieci 
c, greatly magnified. 

Insects should not be classed as "biting insects" and 
"sucking insects" because some species have biting 
mouth parts at one stage of their life cycle and sucking 
mouth parts at another. The caterpillars gnaw or bite 
their food, while the parent moths or butterflies have a 
sucking tongue. Some kinds with sucking mouth parts 
are comparatively free, their host and habitat being 
often unknown. Many kinds, however, have developed 
fixed parasitic habits. Most of the bloodthirsty pests 
belong here, such as horse and cattle flies, the mosquitos 
and the common bed-bug. The sucking insects are usu- 
ally external feeders. Exceptions are noted in the case 
of the horse bot and the cattle warble. 

230a. Structure of Insects. For this exercise the pupil should 
secure good specimens of the grasshopper and butterfly, as these 



Insects on the Farm 163 

two insects illustrate the difference of mouth parts as seen in insects. 
Some, as the grasshopper, have biting mouth parts, while others, 
as squash bugs, etc., have mouth parts suited to suck up the 
plant juices or nectar, (a) Note the large eyes in the front and 
side of the head of each insect. These are called compound eyes 
because they are made up of a great number of simple eyes. (6) 
Note also the feelers or antennte, and the mouth parts. The large 
black jaws of the grasshopper are used for biting, while the long 
coiled tongue-like organ of the butterfly is used for obtaining food 
by sucking out the nectar from flowers. 

230b. The next region of the body behind the head is called the 
thorax. In each insect the thorax is composed of three segments. Each 
segment has a pair of legs attached. All insects have six legs, and 
are sometimes called Hexapoda on this account. On each insect you 
will usually find one or two pairs of wings. These wings are attached 
to the second and third segments of the thorax. Notice that the 
wings of the butterfly are covered with a "powder." This powder is 
made up of small scales attached to the wing in rows overlapping 
each other very much like the shingles of a roof. The wings of the 
grasshopper are smooth and firm with a large number of small veins. 

230c. The next section of the body behind the thorax is called 
the abdomen, which is made up of a number of segments or rings. 
By looking along the side of the abdomen of the grasshopper there 
will be seen a number of small openings or pores. These are the 
breathing pores and nearly all insects have such breathing pores on 
the abdomen and thorax. At the tip of the abdomen the segments 
are changed a little in their form and size. This tip of the abdo- 
men of the female is the egg depositor. The grasshoppers usually 
bore down into the ground and deposit their eggs, while other in- 
sects deposit their eggs in the bark of trees, young fruit, etc. 

230d. Collect some of the common insects from the plants in 
the school-garden, or from the fields, and determine whether they 
have sucking or biting mouth parts. 

231. General Method of Destroying Injurious Insects. 

The number of injurious insects appearing at any one 
time is affected by their food supply, weather conditions, 
and their natural enemies, such as birds, lizards, and 
other kinds of insects. Wherever it is possible, encour- 



164 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 




agement should be given to these common enemies. 
Field pests can sometimes be killed by running heavy 
rollers over the fields, or by plowing or harrowing. The 

leaf-eating forms 
can frequently be 
killed by spraying 
the leaves with 
poisons. Others, 
like the sucking 
insects, may be 
killed by spraying 
directly onto the 
insect some sub- 
stance that kills 
by contact, such 
as oils, alkali 
washes, etc. The 
poison must not 
be strong enough 
to injure the plants. In some cases, the insects may be 
killed by treating the plants with poisonous fumes or 
gases, such as tobacco smoke, and the deadly hydro- 
cyanic acid gas, uesd especially for San Jose scale. Where 
plants are sprayed to prevent fungous diseases, the poison 
for insects may be applied in the same solution at the 
same time. There are many kinds of special machines 
for applying fungicides and insecticides. They are fully 
described in special books and l:»ulletins. 

232. Classification of Insecticides. Substances that 
are used to poison insects are called insecticides. There 
are many substances used to kill insects. They may be 
grouped into three classes, according to the manner in 
which they poison the insect. 



Fig. 101. This apple miglit have been l<ept sound 
by spraying. From Cornell University Junior 
Naturalist. 



Insects on the Farm 



165 



(a) Food, or Internal Poisons, are substances which 
poison by being taken into the digestive tract of the 
insect. This class includes various arsenical compounds, 
such as Paris green, London purple, lead arsenate. 
Poisons of this class are used for insects that chew their 
food, as the leaf-eating forms, unless the use of the poison 




i» W-r*'^ 



Fiii. Iiil2. Sprayiiii; in iUl- late tliriiiant .-^.ason. 

renders the plants dangerous for food, such as cabbage. 

(b) Contact Poison. Substances that destroy by 
attacking the body of the insect, such as washes of 
caustic alkalies, oils, etc. They are used for sucking in- 
sects, i.e., those having beaks, such as the San Jose scale. 

(c) Fumigation Poisons. Substances which enter the 
breathing pores of the insect and cause death by poison- 
ing or suffocation. Smoke, and the deadly hydrocyanic 
acid gas, Pyrethrum, or "insect powder," and carbon 
bisulphide, belong to this class. 




I 



Fig. 103. The cotton-boll worm. After Quaintance and Bmes. l.Eggs on com 
silk, twice natural size; 2-4, early larval stages, somewhat enlarged; 5, 
boll-worm eating into half-grown ball, natural size; 6, mature larva, 
natural size; 7, boU-wonn on green tomato, one -half natural size; 8, 
full grown larva burrowing into soil for pupation; 9n, showing line of 
movement of larva into the soil; 96, pupal chamber with pupa at bottom; 
10, mature pupa, slightly magnified; H, boll -worm moth with wings 
expanded, natural size. 



CHAPTER XXIII 



SOME SPECIAL INJURIOUS INSECTS 

233. Insects that Attack Cotton. There are several 
species of insects that injure the cotton plant, such as 
the cotton army or leaf-worm, cotton boll-worm, the 
Mexican boll-weevil, and the cotton aphis. The leaf- 
worm and boll-worm may be destroyed by spraying 
or dusting with arsenical poisons. (See also Fig. 216.) 

234. The BoU-Worni of cotton, destroys the flower- 
buds or squares, and locks of the bolls. The same insect 
damages the tips of more than 75 per cent of the ears 
in the corn fields. The damage to corn ears is probably 
fully 3 to 5 per cent of the crop. The pupae hibernate 
in the ground through the fall and winter and do not 
mature into moths until late in the spring. These facts 

suggest the advisability of early fall 
plowing to expose the pupa to the 
severe weather conditions of the 
winter seasons, predaceous insects 
and birds. (What other reasons have 
already been mentioned for early 
plowing?) Advantage is taken of the 
habit of the insect of attacking corn 
and cowpeas in preference to cotton, 
to protect the latter. "Trap rows" of 
corn and cowpeas may be planted 
near the cotton to attract the moths. 
In this way the damage to the cotton 
is lessened. Corn is used, also, in pro- 

(167) 




Fig. 104. Mexican Cotton- 
boll weevil. (Enlarged 
five times.) Howard, 
United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 



168 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



tecting tomatoes from this insect. Corn designed for 
"trapping" boll-worms should be planted later than the 
regular crop. Much better results will be secured if the 
corn is planted late. (Fig. 103.) 

235. Chinch Bugs infest corn, wheat, oats, and other 

grass plants. They 
occur widely dis- 
tributed and do 
more damage to 
field crops than any 
other insect. They 
are small, dark col- 
ored sucking bugs 
(see plate), which 
infest growing grain 
throughout the 
warm season. They 
are usually present 
in all grain fields 
during spring and 
summer months, 
and do consider- 
able damage that is 
often not noticed. 

While the chinch 
bugs have wings^ 
they are inclined to travel by crawling. When a small 
grain crop is harvested they migrate to near-by corn 
fields. To protect the corn, the land should be disked 
at once to destroy the bugs and grass that would feed 
them. As they migrate to the corn they can be caught 
in deep dusty furrows and destroyed by dragging a log 
thru the furrow in the afternoons. They do not migrate 




Fig. 105. You can find Chinch bugs in winter 
quarters in this way if present in threatening 
numbers. Courtesy Prof. T. J. Headlee. 




STAGES .N THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHINCH BUG 
1 E^e usually deposited on roots, near the crown. 
2. sfl and 5 Nymphs of different ages. 
6 Mature chinch bug 

Courtesy Dr. Forbes, University of Ilhno... 



Some Special Injurious Insects 



169 




at night; usually in the afternoons. In wet weather the 
corn may be protected by a line of tar or crude oil. Chinch 
bugs pass the winter in tufts of grass (Fig. 105). 

236. The Hessian Fly is a native of Europe and is 
supposed to hiive been introduced into America by the 
Hessian soldiers in the Revolutionary War; hence the 
name. Next to the chinch bug it is the most serious in- 
sect pest of the wheat crop. It has been found that 
the damage can be 
largely prevented by 
plowing under the 
stubble j ust after har- 
vest and destroying 
the volunteer wheat 
in summer. The 
stubble harbors the 
pupal stage. [^[226.] 
If turned under 
deeply it prevents many of the flies from escaping, and thus 
reduces the late "summer crop" of flies and maggots. 

The adult Hessian fly may be seen in infested fields 
in late summer or early spring. It is a yellowish brown 
colored, long-legged, gnat-like insect (Fig. 106). The 
female lays slender, oval, reddish eggs, lengthwise the 
grooves on the upper side of the leaves. These eggs, just 
large enough to be seen with the unaided eye, hatch out 
tiny reddish larvae that wriggle down to the stem under 
the leaf sheath where they feed and grow. The maggots 
soon lose their reddish color, turn white, form a fiaxseed- 
like broAvn pupa before cold weather. Some of the pupae 
hatch out, producing the "spring crop" of flies. Most of 
the pupae, however, remain dormant on the stubble and 
develop the late "summer brood" of flies, which in turn 



Fig. 106. Hessian fly. a, adult, about three times 
natural size; b, pupa or "flaxseed" stage, slightly 
enlarged ; c, larvae or maggots, enlarged. After 
Washburn. 



170 Elementary Princi'ples of Agriculture 

produce the destructive maggots. Destroying volunteer 
wheat starves the summer crop of maggots. Plowing 
under the stubble destroys the pupae and prevents the 
summer crop from developing. Late sowing starves out 
the early fall crop of maggots. These preventive 
measures enable wheat farmers to largely overcome the 
damages caused by Hessian flies. 

236a. The Argentine Ant was first noticed in this 
country at New Orleans, La., in 1891, and has become 
a serious pest over much territory. The species is a 
native of Brazil and Argentine and is supposed to 
have been brought in on coffee ships frona Brazilian 
ports. Recently it has been found in several localities 
in California. The ants forage both day and night, 
invading dwellings, swarming over all kinds of food, 
and even attacking sleeping infants. It bites severely, 
but does not sting. As an agricultural menace, it 
destroys buds, blooms, fruit, and fosters plant lice and 
scale insects (^239). The cotton louse and the sugar 
cane mealy-bug increase rapidly under the care of 
these ants. They attack and destroy native ants, and 
other useful insects. Their nests may be destroyed by 
using carbon bisulphide, potassium cyanide, or oil. 
Poisoning is accomplished by using a bait of arsenic 
in syrup. A jar provided with a perforated top and 
containing a sponge saturated with the poisoned syrup 
can be used in the house as safely as out of doors. 

236b. San Jose Scale (pronounced San Ho-se) is 
easily recognized on fruit trees by an incrustation of 
minute circular bodies with a pimple-like center, as 
pictured in figure 100. The insect itself lives under 
the circular scale. Several generations will be pro- 



Some Sjjecial Injurious Insects 



171 



duced in a season. Young scales are possibly carried 
from orchard to orchard by birds, winds and other 
agencies, but most usually on nursery stock. Lady 
bugs (^247) and parasites are important natural 
enemies, but effective control depends on the use of 
contact poisons (^232c) when the trees are dormant, 
preference being given to the lime-sulphur wash. 
( See appendix B). 

237. Tent Caterpillars are often found in fruit trees. 
They are easily discovered in the spring by their large 
webs supported on the branches. Small bunches of eggs, 
like those shown in 
Fig. 108c, may be 
found much earlier. 
These eggs are laid 
late in the summer 
and covered by a 
sticky substance to 
protect them from 
the winter rains. 
They hatch out usu- 
ally just about the 
time the buds open 
and the caterpil- 
lars feed on the 
young Imds and 
leaves. The cater- 
pillars soon spin a 
deUcate cloth -like 
web or tent, to 
which they retire at 
night, and in bad 
weather. These Fig. los. 
caterpillars are Riify, 




The tent-caterpillar, a and 6, larvae; 
■cluster; d, cocoon; e, full-grown. After 



172 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



well marked with dots and lines along the bodies, that are 
characteristic for each species. After a time they leave 
the tree and each individual spins a paper-like case, 
called a "cocoon," in some sheltered place. The adult 
moth emerges from the cocoon in a few weeks, and lays 
the eggs as mentioned above. These changes may be 
observed by bringing the almost mature caterpillars into 
wire-screened cages. These caterpillars are attacked by 
many insect parasites, snakes, frogs, and particularly by 
birds. The orchard should be inspected 
in the early spring for webs. 

238. "Wire- 
rr^E^^^t^" worms" are very 
common in fields. 
They are the larval stage of 
various species of night-fly- 
ing beetles, such as the click- 
beetles. The adult lives on the 
nectar obtained from flowers 
X'lhWe the larval stage lives in 
the ground and thrives on the 
roots, leaves, and stem^s of 
young plants. 

239. Plant -lice, or Aphids, 
are common everywhere. There 
are many kinds, and all are 
quite small. Plant-lice are soft- 
bodied, usually green, like the 
"green bug," but some forms 
are colored red or black or 
other color. Most of them are 
wingless, though some of them 
will have two pairs of transpar- 




Fig. 109. A corn-plant growing 
ia a root-cage infested by 
■wire-worms and click-beetles. 
After Comstock. 



Some Special Injurious Insects 



173 




ent wings. They almost always occur in. colonies, 

frequently of immense numbers. They feed upon the 

leaves, buds, tender stems, and even the roots in some 

sorts of plants. They 

do much damage by 

sucking the plant j uices. 

Some species secrete a 

substance known as 

"honey dew," which is 

sought after by ants. 

The ants care for the 

aphis and protect them 

from the depredations 

of predaceous insects. 

The scale insects are 

somewhat allied to the 

plant-lice. The San 

Jose scale is the most 

serious representative of the many scale insects. (Fig. 100.) 

239a. Colonies of plant-lice may be found frequently on road- 
side weeds, sometimes under the folded edges of leaves tended by 
ants. Such a colony should be closely observed. Small tubes may 
usually be seen on the abdomen of the lice. The ants have a way of 
stroking the lice to make them give off the honey dew. This action 
is often fancifully called "ants milking their cows." 

240. Insects Injurious to Stored Grain. The insects 
that damage stored grain are the larvae of moths and 
beetles, and several species of weevils remotely akin to 
the plum-gouger and cotton boll-weevil. Corn, wheat, 
peas, and many other seeds are often damaged by these 
insects while stored. Some species are very destructive. 
The "grain-weevil" is the most destructive, particularly 
to corn, peas, barley, kafir corn, etc. The two most 
common species of weevil are shown in Fig. 111. The 



Fig. 110. The spring-grain aphis, a, wing- 
less female; b, larva; c, pupa; d, winged 
migrant. After Webster, United States 
Department of Agriculture. 



174 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



the rice-weevil is common, and has a dull brown color. 
The eggs are laid in the corn, often before it is gathered. 
During warm weather it requires about six weeks to 
mature a weevil from the egg, while, in cold weather. 

they multiply very 
slowly. The egg- 
laying continues 
over a consider- 
able period and, as 
it requires such a 
short while to ma- 
ture a new brood, 
it is no wonder 
that they are found 
in such numbers in 
grain stored for 
any considerable 
time. It is esti- 
mated that, in the 
course of a season, 
they mature six or 
more generations, amounting to 500 or more individuals 
from a single pair. 

241. The Grain Moths do more damage to the stored 
grain than the weevils. The most common species is 
the Angoumois grain moth, so named from the province 
of Angoumois, France. It attacks grain in the field as 
well as in the bin. The adult somewhat resembles the 
common clothes moth. It is light gravish brown and 
about a half-inch across when the wings are expanded. 
The eggs are deposited in clusters of twenty to thirty 
and require only about four to seven, or more, days 
to hatch the caterpillars. The latter bore into the 




Fig. 111. Granary weevil, a, adult; b, larva; 
c, pupa; d, rice weevil. All enlarged. After 
Chittenden. 



Some Special Injurious Insects 



175 



grain, and, after feeding on the starchy matter for about 
three weeks, form a thin silken cocoon, from which the 
adult moth emerges in a few days. About thirty-five 
days are used in passing from egg to adult. Four to, 
possibly, eight broods mature during the year. When 
grain is stored in bulk, only the surface layers are in- 
fested. Both the weevils and moths are subject to attacks 
by parasites. 

242. Preventing Injury to Stored Grain. To reduce 
the injury to stored grain, use is made of repellants like 
napthalene (so-called "moth balls"), salt, air-slaked 
lime, and other substances which, while not poisonous, 
drive the insect out. A temperature of 125° Fahr. is 
sufficient to kill weevils, though more than 150° Fahr. 
may be endured by dry grain without loss of ger- 
minating power. Treating the grains to the vapors of 
bisulfide of carbon in tight bins is by far the most satis- 
factory means of protecting stored grain. In destroying 
the insects, use one pound to one hundred bushels of 
grain. 




Fig. 112. Angoumois grain moth. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
USEFUL INSECTS 

243. Useful Insects. Some insects are useful because 
they supply food, as the honey-bee. Others supply 
materials for clothing, as the silkworm. Still others, as 
we have seen, cause flowers to set fruit by carrying 
pollen from flower to flower. (See t 167.) There are 
many species which are especially useful in man's battle 
with the forces of nature, because they prey upon the 
injurious insects. 

244. Wasps. There are many kinds of wasps. The 
common "red wasps" and ''yellow jackets," with their 
paper nests made out of the fragments of plants, are 
well known. The mud-dauber is another common wasp. 
There are many species of wasps that do not live in 
colonies like the ones just mentioned, but live singly, 
and are, hence, called "solitary wasps." The wasps are 
somewhat related to the domestic bees, and bumble- 
bees. But instead of storing nectar and pollen for food, 
as the bees do, they fill the cells of their nest with the 
younger stages of other insects as food for the young 
wasps. The adults prefer nectar and pollen for them- 
selves, however. The mud-dauber fills the mud-cells with 
the bodies of young spiders, flies, etc., and before sealing 
up the hole, deposits an egg. The food for the larva is 
there ready for it when it is hatched. Wasps are said to 
catch the biting flies that worry stock, and, especially, 
the larvae of the boll-worm. Wasps' nests should not be 
destroyed except, possibly, in orchards. 

(176) 



Useful Insects 



177 



245. Ichneumon Flies, of which there are many 
kinds, are somewhat related to the bees and wasps. 
The adult often feeds on nectar. The usefulness of this 
class of insects is due to the fact that the young are 
parasites. They do not secure their prey by force. 
Instead of catching the insects and carrying them to the 
young larvse, their eggs are deposited in or on the bodies 
of their victims, and there grow into grubs. The grubs 
mature in or on the body of the hosts. The eggs of the 





Fig. 113. A, dead " green bugs," showing hole from 
which the matured parasite emerges. The top 
figure shows the lid still attached, but pushed 
back; the bottom figure shows the parasite 
emerging; B, principal parasite of the spring 
grain-aphis or "green-bug;" adult female, highly 
magnified. After Webster, United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 



parasite are most often deposited in caterpillars, though 
sometimes in the chrysalis, pupa, or on tne adult stage, 
or even in the eggs of their hosts. Entomologists formerly 
thought that each kind or species of parasitic insect 
secured its food from just one or two kinds of hosts, 
somewhat similar to that noticed in the parasitic fungi 
previously mentioned (^[217). Recent investigations 
have shown that there is much less restriction in feed- 
ing habits among parasitic insects than was formerly 

L 



178 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



thought. One species (Fig. 113) of ichneumon fly is 
important because it attacks the green bug, usually in 
sufficient numbers to prevent serious injury. This para- 
site thrives only during warm weather, however, while 
the green bugs may endure much cold weather. Below 
central Texas, the parasitic flies are active at all seasons 
and that section has never been seriously damaged by 
the green bug. In other parts, the entire grain crops 
have been almost destroyed several times because the 
cool weather retarded the multiplication of the parasites. 
Ichneumon flies are parasitized by other ichneumon 

flies, and these in turn 
by others, reminding 
one of the old adage 
that "Large fleas have 
smaller fleas to bite 
'em." 

246. Ants. Many 
species of ants live on 
the eggs and larvce of 
other insects. The "fire 
ants" in particular are 
very useful in cotton 
fields because they de- 
stroy many .grubs of 
boll -weevils in fallen 
buds. The com.mon red 
stinging ant lives on 
weed seeds and wild 
grain, and sometimes 
attacks other insects. 
Some forms of ants, particularly some tropical species, 
are serious pests. 




Fig. 114. Two common species of lady bugs, 
a, liippodamia; 6. megilla; c and d, larva 
stages. After Chittenden, United States 
Department of Agriculture. 



Useful Insects 179 

247. Lady Bugs are another class of insect-eating 
insects. They feed on eggs of the Colorado potato bugs, 
and on plant-lice. The larger forms are easily recog- 
nized by their red and black-spotted color. Two im- 
portant kinds of lady bugs are pictured in Fig. 114. 
One species, Megilla maculata (Fig. 114), is especially 
active in feeding . on the green bug on grains, while 
another, Hippodamia convergens, is more active on the 
plant-lice on cotton and melons. The latter will lay 
about fifteen eggs per day, and often a total of 500 eggs. 
These are deposited on leaves in clusters of from a few 
to fifty in a place. A lady bug will eat about tifty aphids 
per day. We recognize these insects as a benefit to man- 
kind in various ways. 

248. Parasitic Insects are possibly the most import- 
ant class of beneficial insects. Without them, the 
locusts or grasshoppers, the caterpillars of butter- 
flies and moths, and many other kinds, would destroy 
all the plants. Every farm in extreme southern regions 
should have a "lady bug patch." They require plenty 
of insect food for rapid multiplication and this should 
be provided by growing some crop that harbors insects 
through the winter. Some winter-growing plant, like 
rape, which has a winter insect parasite, the cabbage 
aphis. The lady bugs, thus having food through the 
winter, grow and multiply until spring when food natur- 
ally becomes abundant. 



CHAPTER XXV 

WILD BIRDS AND OTHER INSECT- 
EATING ANIMALS 



249. Most Birds Benefit the Farmer, because their 
food consists very largely of harmful insects, weed seeds, 
mice, etc. Some birds eat the grain or do much damage 
to the fruit, but without the birds, the insects would be 
far more destructive. In 1753, Benjamin Franklin 
wrote to a friend: — "In New England they once thought 
blackbirds useless, and mischievous to the corn. They 
made efforts to destroy them. The consequence was, 
the blackbirds diminished, but a kind of worm which de- 
voured their grass, and which the blackbirds used to feed 
upon, increased prodigiously; then, finding their loss 
in grass greater than their gain in corn, they wished 
again for the blackbirds." 

250. Birds Like Insect Food Best. Every one has 
noticed how the field-larks, and other birds, fly into the 

newly plowed furrow. They 
are not looking for freshly 
planted seeds as some sup- 
pose, but for worms and in- 
sects which the plow uncovers. 
They prefer insects, but will 
eat weed or grain seeds if in- 
sects are scarce. In summer 
the field -lark (or "meadow- 
lark," as he is most often called 
in the North) eats insects 




Fig. 115. Food of the meadow- 
lark by months. 



(180) 



Wild Birds and Other Insect-eatina Animals 181 



almost entirely, but in winter when he cannot find 
insects, he has to eat weed seeds, and waste grain, (See 
Fig. 115 and table of food by months.) The young of 
all kind of birds, including those of the vegetable- 
feeding adults, feed largely on insects. (See Fig. 116.) 

Food for the Year. 

Stomachs Animal Weed 

Months Examined Food Grain Seeds Total 

Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent 

January 13 24.36 75.28 .36 100 

February 1 .00 25.00 75.00 100 

March 12 73.14 17.00 9.86 100 

April 28 77.51 15.10 7.39 100 

May 8 97.99 1.88 .13 100 

June 20 95.79 2.10 2.11 100 

July 18 97.32 .00 2.68 100 

August 28 99.35 .00 .65 100 

September 29 99.20 .40 .40 100 

October 40 94.39 .61 5.00 100 

November 22 77.08 6.50 16.42 100 

December 19 39.22 32.70 28.08 100 

Totalforyear 238 72.95 14.71 12.34 100 

251. Beneficial Birds Should not be Killed for food, 
neither for sport, nor for decorations for hats. Every 





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o '■'■'■'.'■■ ■'.\ 




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ml • ' ■ ' -X 






l-:-:':-:-;-:-:-:-:-'.\ 


^m':ym 




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OR A IN. 



Adult Nestlings 

Fig. 116. Diagram showing proportions of food of English sparrow 
voung and adult. 




182 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



time one feels tempted to kill birds, he should not only 
think of the good they do by destroying insects and 
weed seeds, but possibly not far off there is a group of 
tender nestlings waiting for mama or papa bird to come 
home with a morsel of food, to check the pangs of hunger. 
When women decorate their hats with aigrettes, they 
encourage selfish persons to kill harmless birds. ' It is 
against the laws of many states to kill the useful birds. 
No one should want to destroy them. Birds should be 
protected at all seasons. Define "game birds" and 
"Non-game birds," as used in the laws of your state. 

252. English Sparrows (Fig. 117) Uve almost exclu- 
sively on the farmers' crops, besides destroying the 




Fig. 117. English sparrow. 

eggs and nests of other birds. They should be de- 
stroyed. The native species of sparrows are insect- 
eating birds. 

253. Migration of Birds. Some birds live all the time 
in the same locality, like the partridge, Texas road- 
runner, and downy woodpecker, the sparrow, and the 



Wild Birds and Other Insect-eating Animals 183 



cardinal, while other kinds, as the robin, bluejay, etc., 

spend one season in one part of the world, and the 

others elsewhere. 

Everybody" knows 

that the wild geese 

"fly over" in the 

fall, going south to 

the warm salt 

waters, and back 

again in the spring 

on their way to the 

breeding-grounds in 

Canada. Likewise, 

the field-lark spends 

the summer in the 

North, and in the 

fall and winter he 

makes his home 

in the South. (Fig. 

118.) 

253a. Make a list 
of the kinds of birds, 
found in the county. 
How many kinds are permanent residents, and how many visit 
for only a part of the year? 

254. The Feeding Habits of Birds. The farmer is 
interested in the birds because they eat the insects that 
destroy his crops. The illustrations. Figs. 119 and 
120, show how much of each kind of food some common 
birds eat. Some birds, like the swallows and scissor- 
tailed flycatcher, live on insects almost entirely. Others, 
like the dove, eat nearly all weed seeds and gram, but 
most birds eat some of both. It will be interesting to 




Fig. 118. Meadow lark or field lark. 




1 House li^en 2 Song- Sparrow 5 Orchard Oriole 




10 RedHeadod 
Woodpecker^ 



11 Red Mn^ed 
Blackbird. 



12 JlmQrican 
Cropr 



Beneficial Animals 



Injurious^nimals 



JFru its 



o o o oo 



Grain 



mid Seed 



Fig. 119. Diagram illustrating the proportions of the food of various beneficial 
and destructive bird.s. 




22 Toad 25 Horned Lizzard 24 Chicken Snake 

3QneficialAniTnals 



Fruits 



On "oC 



(train 



InjuriousAnima Is 
^M WildSeQds 



120. Diagram illustrating the proportions of the food of various beneficial 
ana destructive birds. 



18G Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

watch the many kinds of birds in your neighborhood, 
and see how they catch their food. The scissor-tails 
capture the insects that fly during the day. At night 
the whippoorwills and night-hawks begin to fiy, and 
catch the insects that the day-fiying birds miss. Some 
kinds of birds, like the wren and vireos, go carefully from 
leaf to leaf, looking for the small, half-hidden insects 
on the under sides. Still, again, the busy woodpecker 
goes over the bark looking for insect eggs and larvae, 
or boring for ants and wood-worms. Other birds, like 
the larks and sparrows, scan the ground for creeping 
insects, while still others, with long legs and bills, go to 
the bottom of the pool for the little swimmers that are 
seemingly safe from molestation. 

254a. If a bird eats on an average one hundred insects a day, 
and there are three birds to every acre of land, how many insects 
will they eat in a year? How many insects would they take from 
the largest orchard in the neighborhood? 

254b. A quail was found to have 10,000 weed and grass seeds 
in the craw when killed. If each quail in a covey of fifteen should 
destroy this many weed seeds daily for a year, how many weeds 
would be destroyed? 

255. Change of Feeding Habits in Migration. Some 
birds that spend a part of a season in one part of the 
country, and the other in a distant section, change 
their feeding habits. A good illustration is the bobolink, 
or rice bird. It breeds in the North, and feeds largely 
on insects, and but slightly on grain. In the South it is 
called "rice bird" because it prefers the rice field, 
where 50 to 80 per cent of its food is rice. 

256. Bird-houses. Instead of shooting at birds, 
and throwing stones to scare them, we should encourage 
the useful birds to build their nests around the barns 
and in the orchards. Many persons build houses to 



Wild Birds and Other Insect-eating Animals 187 

attract martins and sparrows. A simple house may be 
made with old tin cans, as shown in Fig. 121, using a 
board for a roof, and allowing part of the top of the can 




Fig. 121. A good way to use tin cans. 

to remain, to make a lighting place. A good house, for 
martins is shown in Fig. 122. 

257. Other Animals that Destroy Insects. "Horned 
frogs" (though they are really horned lizards) and 
common toads live on insects, as, also, do most snakes. 
Even the old chicken snakes make way with many times 
more rats and mice than they do with young chickens. 




Fig. 122. A simple martin bouse. 




1 

I 



Fig. VS-i. Side, front and rear view of Hereford cow, "Lady Briton 16. 



FAUT II 

CHAPTER XXVI 
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 

258. Utilizing Farm Crops. The farmer grows grass, 
alfalfa, grains, cotton, fruits and other crops which he 
desires to convert into money. There are two ways of 
marketing the surplus feeds grown on the farm: (1) The 
crops may be sold to other persons to be fed to stock, 
or (2) they may be fed to animals on the farm where 
they are produced and worked up into a variety of 
products of less weight and bulk, as beef, pork, poultry, 
eggs, milk, horses, mules, cows, etc. These finished 
products may often be marketed for much more than 
could be secured for the feed alone. And, in addition, 
there will be retained on the farm much of the fertility, 
in the feeds, for the benefit of succeeding crops. 

258|. Good Live Stock and Good Pastures should be 
a feature of most farms. It is a singular f::,ct that in 
states having the largest number of live stock on the 
farms that the average earnings of such farms are usually 
greater than in states where the care of live stock is not 
an important part of the farmer's work. 

259. The Farm is a Factory where the plant and 
animal products are made from the crude substances 
of the air and soil. It is just as necessary to keep the 
soil able to sustain large yields as to keep the machinery 
in the mills in good working order. The wealth-pro- 

(189) 



190 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

ducing power of the farm lies in the productiveness of 
the soils. It costs something every year to restore to 
the soil the power to make a large yield of wheat (see 
^jlll), but it costs more to grow wheat on land that 
averages only half-crops during the life of a farmer. 

260. The Cost of Manufacture and the value of the 
feeds should be counted against the value of the prod- 
ucts. The value of a product is determined by its kind, 
the supply offered at a given time, and the demand. 

261. Animal Husbandry is the natural companion 
of crop farming. When the products of the fields and 
meadows are removed from the farm each year, there 
is a continual loss of fertility, which leads to certain 
poverty of the farm and farmer. When these are fed 
to the stock on the farm much of the fertility in the 
crops may be returned to the land. 

262. Stock Farming varies and distributes the farm- 
er's labor. It gives him opportunity to work every day 
in the year by which he may earn something for his 
family. An all-grain crop or hay crop, or cotton crop, 
etc., overtaxes the farm labor in one season and leaves 
it in comparative idleness the next. Stock farming en- 
courages system in rotation of crops, and thus tends 
to maintain the land in a high state of productiveness. 

263. In Selecting Animals for the Farm, the farmer 
should use just as good judgment as the manufacturer 
does in buying machinery, for the stock is the machinery 
that makes the crude products of the farm into salable 
products. The machines used in manufacturing have 
been greatly improved to cheapen production in special 
lines. What shall be the character of the machines which 
the farmer uses to convert his feeds into finished prod- 
ucts? Shall it be the latest improved, — by years of 



I 



.if Her, I 



DAILY MILK AND FEED RECORD FOR MONTHl 



XAME: 

li;i:f.!> 




9j \3rt''^p^ 



C'^^au"'y ,c /c yc- 



.; rost Offu 
! 

» 15 :;•. ; 5 15 a 

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ToiAL, h'^ ^o/\^-n. ^iA^sv j-2'/\j>os- ^y^\ f/ y-i' 

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W2 



Total \alue,_ 
















' Cost (rf i»ii£tuie per Lead, 



Fig. 124. Record of five cows tor one month. Is the profit above cost of feed 
sufficient to pay for care ? Records furnished by Prof. C. O. Moser . 



192 Elementary Principtes of Agriculture 

breeding and selecting, to secure a breed that will give 
a larger or more valuable return in meat, butter, eggs, 
wool, etc., for each poijnd of feed supplied? 

264. Many Animals Are Unsuited for the purpose 
for which they are kept. The Illinois Agricultural 
Experiment Station made individual records for a full 
year of the butter produced by 554 cows in Illinois 
dairies. The average for the 139 poorest was 133.5 
pounds of butter-fat and for the 139 best, 301 pounds, 
or an average difference of 167.5 pounds butter-fat per 
year. At 25 cents per pound this is $41.87 per cow. 

264a. Figure the gross and net returns per year to the dairy- 
man for labor and interest on the investment for each of the above 
groups of cows. Allow $30 per year for the cost of feed for each 
cow, and 25 cents per pound for butter-fat. The cows were valued 
at $50 each. Were they all worth this much? 

265. Records of Individual Performance should be 
made of cows, hens, etc., to determine the cost of keep- 
ing and the returns of the farmer. By this means the 
profitable animals may be recognized, as also the unprofi- 
table ones. The latter should be discarded. The farmer 
may, by attention to these matters, learn that some 
animals are being fed at a loss. (Study Fig. 124.) 

265a. Milk and Butter Records. Secure records of the amount 
of milk, and amount of butter, from cows in the neighborhood for 
a single week. Calculate the value of the product at current prices. 
Count the amount and cost of the feed consumed. Determine the 
returns for labor, etc. (See Fig. 124 and 11352.) 

265b. Growth of Pigs. Weigh a weaned pig once a week for 
four weeks, and calculate the daily gain in weight. Allow for cost 
of feed and calculate the cost per pound gain. Market prices may 
be secured from the daily papers. 

265c. Record of Loretta D. (see Fig. 131), the champion "best 
cow of any breed" for economical butter-production in the dairy 
test at the St. Louis Exposition in a 120-day test was, average daily 



Animal Husbandry 



193 



flow of milk 48.35 pounds, containing 2.33 pounds of actual butter- 
fat (equal to 2.75 pounds of standard quality butter). The cost of 
her feed was twenty-five cents per day. Calculate the value of the 
milk and butter for ten months. 

265d. Record of Colantha 4th's Johanna (see Fig. 125), in a 
year test completed December 24, 1907, was 27,432 pounds milk, 
yielding 998 pounds of butter-fat. This is the world's record, both 
for milk and butter, for any cow of any breed. What would be 
the value of her milk and butter at current prices? 

BREEDS OF LIVE-STOCK 

266. What Constitutes a Breed? Breed, as applied to 
live-stock, corresponds to variety in cultivated plants. 




Fig. 125. A famous Holstein, Colantha 4th's Johanna 
Record op Colantha 4th's Johanna. 



Days 



Time 



1 

7 

30 

60 

365 



Feb. 6, 1907 

Feb. 6 to 12 

Jan. 21 to Feb. 20 

Dec. 27 to Feb. 25.. .. 
Dec. 24, '06 to Dec, '07 



Milk 


Butter-fat 


Lbs. 


Per cent 


Total 


100.8 


3.96 


3.99 


651.7 


4.37 


28.17 


2,873.6 


3.86 


110.83 


5,326.7 


3.91 


208.39 


27,432.5 





998.25 



Estimated 
butter 



4.65 

32 86 

129.30 

243.12 

1,165.00 



194 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

The various breeds of poultry, cattle, horses, sheep, etc., 
descended from a common stock. The differences which 
we recognize in the breeds are the result of continued 
selections. 

267. Origin of Breeds. Man long ago recognized 
differences in the ability of individual animals to con- 
vert their food into milk, wool, feathers, eggs, etc. 
Therefore we select animals, not so much for their 
ability to endure hardships, but for their power to pro- 
duce something in response to care. Continued selection 
has produced breeds of animals having certain charac- 
ters strongly developed. They are called "special-pur- 
pose breeds." 

Many persons are content to perpetuate animals 
having merely the form and color markings of the breed 
or strain. Intelligent breeders, however, while trying 
to preserve the obvious features in color and bodily foi*m 
that belong to the breed or strain in which they may be 
interested, also give close attention to habits and records 
of performance. Of two animals receiving the same feed 
and care, one may gain more than another. Or, again, 
of two animals having the same weight, as dairy cows, 
one may consume more feed, with a corresponding 
increase in products. There are many cows that may 
consume less feed than Loretta D, and still require more 
feed to produce a pound of milk or butter. 



'CHAPTER XXVIl 

TYPES AND BREEDS OF CATTLE 

268. The Beef Types are distinguished by their 
ability to lay on large amounts of flesh. Their bodies 
have a rounded form, with strong back and well-sprung 
ribs. They have full quarters, straight bottom and top 




Fig. 126. Outlines of shape of beef cows compared with parallelograms. 



lines (see Fig. 127), and a tendency to develop flesh at 
an early age. Careful breeders prefer the animal that 
locates a large amount of its flesh where it is worth 
most, i. e., in regions supplying the valuable cuts of 
steak. (See Fig. 128.) Animals having these qualities 
so fixed by repeated selections that they regularly 
appear in the offspring, belong to the beef-breeds. 

269. The Shorthorn, like the Herefords, is an old 
English breed. The shorthorns adhere closely to the 




Fig. 127. Outlines of shape of dairy cows compared with parallelograms. 
(195) 



196 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



beef t}^pe, but many strains are good milkers, and are 
classed as "general purpose" animals. They are of very 

large size, the 
cows often rang- 
ing from 1,400 
to 2,000 pounds. 
The horn is 
short, the hind- 
quarters are 
broad and well 
filled. A consid- 
erable range of 
color is allowed 
in the shorthorns, — from light to dark red, or roan, the 
latter formed by a mixture of red and white hairs. The 
Polled Durhams are an offshoot of the Shorthorns. (Fig. 
129.) The Shorthorn is one of the most popular of beef 
breeds. During the course of its development three 




Fig. 128. Chicago retail dealers' method of 
cutting beef, 




lig. 129. A prize-winiiing rolled Durham. Ruby of Buttonwood. 



Types and Breeds of Cattle 



197 



types have come to be recognized — ^the Bates, Booth, 
and Crookshanks, or Scotch Shorthorns. The former 
two are EngUsh in origin and differ from each other in 
the following characters : The Bates cattle have been 
bred for beauty and symmetry, style and milking quali- 
ties, while in the Booth strain constitution, wide thick- 
fleshed backs and length of quarters have been empha- 




Fig. 130. A typical Aberdeen Angus. 

sized. The Crookshanks, or Scotch strain, are low, have 
blocky forms with large scale, heavy coats of hair, and 
mature quite early. 

270. The Herefords take their name from the county 
of Hereford, England, where the breed originated. They 
are typically a beef breed, hardy, early maturing, and 
well suited to range conditions. In milk-production 
they are very poor. The red body color and white face 
are well-fixed marks for the breed. (See Fig. 123.) 



198 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

271. Aberdeen-Angus derive their name from two 
counties of northern Scotland. They are polled or 
hornless and noted for their fine beef qualities. Their 
place as a range breed is not yet established, though 
as feeders they have many friends. The body is very 
compact and more cylindrical than that of either Here- 
fords or Shorthorns. The legs are short and heavy. Color 
is nearly always black. They are classed as medium 
milkers among beef breeds. (Fig. 130.) 

272. Dairy Types are noted for their ability to pro- 
duce large quantities of milk and butter, instead of flesh. 
They are noticeable for their long, deep couplings, 
triple wedge-shaped outlines, due to their clean-cut 
shoulders and broad, deep hind-quarters, clean-cut limbs, 
slender necks and sharp withers. They also have a full 
barrel, indicating strong constitution, and well-developed 
digestive systems, well-developed udders, and a capacity 
to yield a quantity of milk and butter on moderate feed. 
The important dairy breeds are the Jerseys, Guernseys, 
Holstein-Friesian, Ayrshire::; and Dutch Belted. 

273. The Jerseys and the Guernseys are natives ot 
the islands of these names in the English Channel. 
The typical color for the Jersey breed is described as 
fawn, gray, and silvery fawn. White marks are not 
infrequent. The tongues and switch of the tail are typi- 
cally black in pure-bred Jerseys. In conformation, the 
Jersey adheres strictly to the dairy-type characteristics. 
The weight of the cows averages between 650 and 850 
pounds. Their milk is noted for its richness in butter-fat, 
a fair average being close to 4.5 per cent fat in the milk. 
As a beef producer, the Jersey is very poor. A number 
of famous Jerseys have records ranging from 700 to 
1 ,000 pounds of butter in a single year. 



Types and Breeds of Cattle 



199 




Fig. 131. Loretta D. A Jer.sey euw witli a tjooil loiiu ajul a liciod lecijrd. 

Official Milk, Fat and Butter Yields of Loretta D. 





From 


Milk 


Fat 


Estira'd butter* 


Days 


Total 


Daily 
average 


Total 


Daily 
average 


Total 


Daily 
average 


120 
30 

7 
1 


June 16-Oct. 13. . . 
Aug. 28-Sept. 26 . . 
Sept. 17-Sept. 23 . . 
Aug. 13 


Lbs. 
5,802.7 
1,442.8 

335.2 
50.65 


Lbs. 
48.35 
48.09 
47.90 


Lbs. 

280.16 

73.68 

17.67 

3.13 


Lbs. 
2.33 
2.45 
2.52 


Lbs. 

330.03 

86.94 

20.85 

3.71 


Lbs. 
2.75 
2.90 
2.98 









274. The Holstein-Friesian, or simply Friesian, as 
they are called in their native country, Holland, is a 
splendid dairy type with large frame. The color is black 

* In calculating the amount of commercial butter, add one-sixth to the net 
butter-fat, to allow for the moisture in the butter. 



200 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



Points and Measurements to Be Observed in Judging Cattle 



9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 

18. 
19. 

20, 
21, 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 

27. 
28. 



29. 
30. 
31. 

32. 



Mouth. 

Lips. 

Nostrils. 

Muzzle. 

Face, from muzzle to poll. 

Forehead, from eyes to 
poll. 

Eye. 

Cheek, side of head below 

Jaw. [eye. 

Throat. 

Brains. 

Ear. 

Poll, top of head. 

Horns. 

Neck. 

Neck, lateral view. 

Breast or bosom, front of 
chest. 

Fore flank, rear of arm. 

Dewlap, loose skin, under- 
neath the throat. 

Brisket, point of chest. 

Withers, top of shoulders. 

Shoulder point. 

Neck or collar depression in 

Elbow. [front. 

Arm. 

Fore arm, portion of leg 
between elbow and knee. 

Knee. 

Cannon or shank-bone, be- 
tween knee and ankle in 
fore- or hind-leg. 

Hoof. 

Spinal column, backbone. 

Barrel or coupling, middle- 
piece. 

Loin, muscle covering the 
short ribs. 



33. Hooks or hips. 

34. Crops, depression behind 

shoulder. 

35. Fore-ribs. 

36. Girth at flank. 

37. Chest cavity. 

38. Chine, between withers and 

loin. 

39. False or floating ribs. 

40. Belly. 

41. Milk- veins, branched and 

tortuous ducts running 
forward beneath the 
barrel. 

42. Orifices through which the 

milk veins enter the ab- 
dominal walls. 

43. Midribs. 

44. Abdominal depth, indicat- 

ing digestion and consti- 
tution. 

45. Tail head. 

46. Pin bones. 

47. Escutcheon, covered with 

fine hairs. 

48. Buttocks. 

49. Twist where hair turns on 

thigh. 

50. Gaskin or lower thigh. 

51. Brush. 

52. Thigh. 

53. Stifle. 

54. Flank. 

55. Udder. 

56. Teats. 

57. Hock. 

58. Navel or umbilicus. 

59. Face. 

60. Pelvic arch or sacrum, be- 

tween the loin and crupper. 



A. Width of forehead. 

B. Length of neck. 

C. Width of breast. 

D. Length from pin 

shoulder point. 



Measurements. 



bones to 



E. Height at withers and hooks. 

F. Girth at chest and navel. 

G. Length of barrel depression. 
H. Width of hooks. 

K. Length of hind-quarters. 



-A — -K^39 ,'3^ 34,' 




Fig. 132. Points and measurements to be observed in judging cattle. 



202 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



and white, sometimes the white, sometimes the black, 
prevaiHng. In quantity of milk this breed excels all 
others. Colantha 4th's Johanna (Fig. 125) is credited 
with 27,432.5 pounds of milk in twelve months, which 
is the world's record. A good cow is expected to pro- 
duce from 7,000 to 9,000 pounds of milk in a year. 
A cow that does not produce 4,000 or 5,000 pounds 
of milk a year is likely to be unprofitable. While the 




Fig. 133. "She is broad on top." Courtesy of Department of Agricultural 
Extension, University of Ohio. 

milk from Friesian cows is not so rich as that afforded 
by the Jerseys and the Guernseys, the total butter-fat 
is equally great. 

275. Dual-purpose Breeds are intermediate between 
the beef and dairy types. The, cows afford considerably 
more milk than the calves can use, and the body form 
is such that they dress out a good quality of beef. 
The breeds most usually classed as dual-purpose ani- 



Types and Breeds of Cattle 203 

mals are Red Polls, Brown Swiss, Shorthorn and 
Aja'shires. 

276. Judging Cattle. To become a good judge of 
stock one should study to find out the form and habits 
that represent useful qualities. The diagram in Fig. 132 
should be closely studied, with two or three animals at 
hand for comparison, in training the judgment on the 
useful points. 

Cattle should be judged for the use that is to be made 
of them. Where one is selecting "feeders," animals hav- 
ing the beef-type conformation will be more profitable. 
The person who has studied and practiced judging beef 
cattle will be able to quickly recognize the animals lack- 
ing in depth of body, c[uietne.ss of disposition, or in what 
the butcher calls "quality," i. e., fine bone, soft, mellow 
hide, and silky liair. The animal with long legs, shallow- 
ness in depth of bod}^ at heart girth, and light in flanks, 
will rarely make a good feeder. Likewise, in' selecting 
dairy cows, one comes to recognize certain habits and 
peculiarities of conformation that distinguish animals 
of special merit for dairy purposes. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

TYPES AND BREEDS OF HORSES 

277. Prehistoric Horses. The skeletons of horses 
existing in prehistoric times, ages and ages ago, are 
found in western North America, from Texas to British 
Columbia, also in England and France. Some of these 
early horses had toes. The little horny thickenings of 




Fig. 134. Prehistoric horses. To show increase in size. A and B, Early forms; 
C, a later and larger form, about four and one-half hands high; D, the 
"forest horse." Drawings constructed from a study of the geologic 
remains, by Professor Osborne 

(204) 



Types and Breeds of Horses 



205 




lo5. Trotting stallniii, Caiinun, ;:!_'/,»i7. The tir^t sire .-ielccted tor use in 
the experiments of the Department of Agriculture to develop an American 
breed of carriage horses. 

the skin just above the knee of the front legs (chestnuts) 
and below the fetlock of the hind legs (ergots) are marks 
of the toes that were in the feet of the prehistoric 
horses. The horses which we have now are thought to 
have descended from the Old World stocks. (Fig. 134.) 

278. Valuable Qualities in Horses. The horse is 
invaluable on the farm or in the city. He is stout, quick, 
intelligent, and more faithful than any other animal 
used for bearing burdens. Horses and mules are neces- 
sary for heavy hauling and plowing. Other forms of 
power are cheaper or more desirable in many cases, but 
there will always be work for the horse. 



206 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

279. *Horses Should Be Selected for the work they 
are to do. Different kinds of work require different 
kinds of horses. A horse is of no particular value except 
for what he can do. To fulfil his mission he must travel. 
If he can draw a buggy containing one or two persons 
at the rate of ten miles an hour, he is valuable as a road- 
ster. Another horse that can draw his share of a load 
weighing upwards of a ton, even though he moves 
slowly, performs an equal amount of actual work, and 
is just as useful to his owner as is the roadster. Since all 
horses are valuable because they travel, although at 
various rates and under widely varying conditions, 
it will be interesting to make a study, of those parts 
of the horse's body directly connected with his loco- 
motion. 

280o Use of the Muscles. It is not difficult to under- 
stand that, with the horse as with ourselves, all motion 
is the result of the action of the muscles. About 40 per 
cent of the weight of an ordinary horse is muscle. All 
muscles concerned with locomotion are attached to 
bones, and when they contract they cause the bones to 
which they are fastened to move. The lower part of 
a horse's legs are nearly all bone, but the muscles in 
the body and upper part of the limbs are attached to 
various parts of the bony construction by tendons, 
and can thus produce a motion of the parts located 
some distance away. When contracted, the muscles 
we are discussing are about three-quarters as long as 
when at rest. The amount of motion produced by the 
action of the muscles of, say one of the horse'? legs, 
will depend upon the length of the muscles and the 

* Paragraphs 279 to 285 are taken by permission from a leaflet on " The 
Horse," by Prof. F. R. Marshall, published by the Ohio State University. 




Front view of front legs. A shows correct conformation; B to G, 
common defects. 





L 



Side view of front legs. A shows correct conformation; B, foot too 
far back; C, too far forward; D, knee-sprung; E, knock-kneed. 






Side view of hind legs. A shows correct conformation; 
B to D, common defects. 




Rear view of hind legs. A shows correct conformation; 

B to E, common defects. 

Fig. 136. Positions of horses' legs, while standing. After Craig. 



208 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

length and the relation of the bones to which they are 
attached. The common idea among students of this 
subject is expressed in these words, "Long muscles for 
speed, short muscles for power." We have already seen 
that a long muscle enables a horse to get over ground 
rapidly. A short muscle, however, is not powerful 
because it is short, but because in horses constructed 
on that plan the muscles are thicker, containing more 
fibers, all of which pulling together when contracted 
exert a much greater pulling force than will a long, and 
more slender muscle. It is because of this that in buying 
horses to draw heavy loads we look for large and heavy 
muscles, while in roadsters we must attach importance 
to the length of the muscles. 

281. Muscles of the Hind-quarters. The most of 
a horse's muscle is in the hind-quarters. This may be 
a surprise to you, but the next time you have an oppor- 
tunity to see a horse pulling a very heavy load, study 
him carefully. You will be impressed with the idea 
that most of the work is being done with the hind legs. 
When the hind foot is moved forward the toe rests 
on the ground, and the leg is bent at the hock joint; 
if the toe does not sUp, and the horse is strong enough 
for his load, the muscles above, pulling on the tendon 
fastened to the back and upper point of the hock, will 
close the joint, or, in other words, straighten the legs, 
and cause the body to move forward. It is by the per- 
formance of this act at every step that the horse moves, 
although, of course, the strain on all the parts is much 
greater when pulling very hard. This will also show the 
necessity of having large, broad, straight joints, and 
legs that give the horse the most secure footing. You 
have probably also noticed when driving that many 



Types and Bveeds of Horses 209 

horses put their hind foot on the ground in front of the 
mark left by the fore foot, and the faster they go the 
greater will be the distance between the marks made 
by the fore and the hind feet. This shows that the 
length of a step is determined by the hind-quarters; 
it also explains the need of large, strong hocks, and legs 
that are not so crooked as to seem weak, or so straight 
as to lessen the leverage afforded by this very wonder- 
ful arrangement of the pares. 

282. Body Form. Then there are some other things 
that are desired in all kinds of horses. One of these is 
a short back, that is, short from the hips to the top of 
the shoulders (the withers). From what we have learned 
of the hind parts we know that the horse is really push- 
ing the rest of his body along. If the back is short and 
strong, instead of long and weak, the whole body will 
move more easily and rapidly in obedience to the force 
produced in the hind parts. 

283. The Fore-legs. Although the hind parts have 
most to do with the horse's traveling, we must not forget 
that the front parts are also very important. No matter 
how much muscle a horse has, or how strong his hocks 
are, if there is anything seriously wrong with his front 
legs, he cannot travel, and so derives no benefit from his 
good parts. Some horses may be seen whose knees are 
not straight, others, when looked at from in front, show 
that their feet are not in line with their legs. Such 
animals are more hkely to strike one leg with the oppo- 
site foot, thus making themselves lame and unable to 
do any work. 

284. Horses' Feet. There are a great many interest- 
ing things about a horse which cannot be told here, 
but which you may learn at home, or from some neighbor 



210 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

who keeps good horses. We will, however, say some- 
thing about horses' feet. Inside a horse's hoof there 
are some very sensitive parts, resembling the attach- 
ment of the finger-nail to the finger. When anything 
gets wrong with the foot, these parts cause a great deal 
of pain, and even though the horse is otherwise perfect, 
the pain in his feet makes him too lame to travel. 
Horses with large, wide feet, that are wide across where 
they touch the ground when you look at them from 
behind (or in the heels), are not likely to have this 
trouble. 

285. Style in Horses. Even though you have never 
studied horses, you have seen some that impress you 
as being more beautiful than others. No matter what 
kind of work is to be done, it is desirable to have a horse 
that looks well. Of course, it will depend upon whether 
the horse is thin or fat, and upon the grooming he has 
had, but you will usually find that the horses which 
attract you have rather long necks that rise upward 
from where they leave the body; the head, too, instead 
of being set on straight up and down, will have the nose 
pointed a little forward; the ears will be rather close 
together, and the eyes large and bright-looking. 

286. The Draft Type is becoming more popular wher- 
ever horses are used. They are better suited to farm 
work and the heavy hauling of large cities. Good draft 
horses have large size, blocky build, short legs, broad 
backs and quiet tempers. Percherons, Clydesdales, 
English shires and Belgians are leading representative 
breeds of the draft type. 

287. The Percheron is now the most popular draft 
breed in America. They are docile, inteUigent, active, 
and have excellent feet; are heavy in weight- and 



Types and Breeds of Horses 



211 



steady pullers under load. Typical specimens of this 
breed run from fifteen to sixteen hands high. The color 
is generally gray, though blacks are often met. 




Fig. 137. Percheron, Medoc, 30,986. First in class at Iowa, Minnesota, and 
Wisconsin State Fairs, 1903 ; also one first and one second at Chicago 
International, 1903. 

288. The Clydesdale is the recognized draft breed 
of Scotland, taking their name from the river Clyde. 
Usually they have smaller Ivodies and longer legs than 
the Percherons, which is supposed to allow more action. 

289. Coach Types are sometimes referred to as 
heavy harness horses. The most popular breeds are the 



212 



Elementary Principles of Agricvlture 



Hackney, or English Coach, Cleveland Bays, French 
Coach and German Coach. 

290. Saddle and Driving Horses are very popular 
because of their quick action. There are several strains 




Fig. 138. Clyilesdalo mare, Princi's.s llamlsome. Winner of first prize three 
years in succession at Chicago International Live-stock Show. 

of driving horses, all derived in part from the Arabian 
horses. As a result of superior breeding, the English 
thoroughbred and the American trotting horses have 
come to be better movers than the original Arabian 
stocks. There are several strains of the American trot- 
ting horses, such as the Hambeltonian, the Wilkes and 
the Morgans. The native "Mustangs," found in western 



Types and Breeds of Horses 



213 



America by the early explorers, are supposed to be the 
descendants of early importations made during the 
Spanish conquest of Mexico. 




Fig. 139. Hackney horse. Lord Burleigh. One of the greatest of modern 
show horses 

291. Ponies. Besides the ponies owned by the Indians 
of America, the little Shetland island horses are called 
ponies. These "Shetlands" are small because they have 
been forced to live on the coarse and scant grasses 
of the cold regions of north Scotland. 



214 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



292. Judging Horses. Fig. 136 illustrates the proper 
and improper position of the legs of horses. In study- 
ing horses this should always be closely observed. Get 
two horses together and closely contrast the various 
points. Fig. 140 gives the names in common use for 
the various parts of a horse. 




Fig. 140. Typical horse, showing names of 



1. Muzzle. 

2. Nostril. 

3. Forehead. 

4. Cheek. 

5. Temple. 

6. Poll or nape of neck. 
7-7'. Crest. 

8. Neck. 

9. Withers 

10. Shoulder. 

11. Point of shoulder. 

12. Slant of shoulder. 

13. Breast. 



14. Elbow. 

15. Fore-arm. 

16. Knee. 

17-17'. Cannon bone. 
18-18'. Fetlock. 
19-19'. Pastern. 
20-20'. Coronet. 

21. Hoof. 

22. Chestnut. 

23. Ergot. 

24. Splints. 

25. Back. 

26. Loins 



the points. 

27. Chest. 

28. Flank. 

29. Belly. 

30. Tail head. 

31. Tail. 

32. Croup. 

33. Buttock. 

34. Thigh. 

35. Stifle joint. 

36. Gaskin. 

37. Hock. 

38. Point of hock. 



Types and Breeds of Horses 215 

293. Care of Horses. Horses are intelligent and 
nervous animals, and should be handled with impas- 
sive judgment. Your treatment should convince 
him that you are his friend, as well as his master. If 
a horse shies, or becomes frightened, soothe and encour- 
age him. You cannot whip terror out of a horse, nor 
courage into one. Before you check a horse's head into 
an unnatural position try it on yourself. Read "Black 
Beauty," and the story of the Bell of Justice in Long- 
fellow's poem, "The Bell of Atri." Horses respond to 
care and kind treatment more quickly and decidedly 
than any other domestic animal, unless an exception 
be made in favor of the dog. 

The horse has a small stomach, and therefore may 
not take in large quanities of feed at any one time with- 
out injury. The feeding of horses, for this reason, should 
be frequent and regular. 



CHAPTER XXIX 
TYPES AND BREEDS OF HOGS 

294. Some Hogs Should Be on Every Farm. Hog flesh 
may be produced more cheaply than other kinds. 
There is very Httle waste in a hog carcass, because they are 
built so compactly. Hogs ''dress out" seventy or eighty- 
five pounds of palatable products per hundred pounds 
live weight, varying according to the condition and 
kind of animal. With hogs, meat-producing quality 
is the valuable feature in all breeds. We consider not 
only the gross weight, but the form that will dress out 
the greatest per cent of high-priced cuts, and a small 
per cent of waste. 

295. Food of Hogs. The hog will eat many kinds of 
slops and waste products that no other animal will. A 
range or pasture, clean, roomy pens, and some grain 
feed, with shelter for hot or extreme cold weather, are 
necessary to keep hogs healthy and growing. Some pas- 
ture should always be provided for hogs in winter 




Fig. 141. Comparative values of the different cuts as used by the retail 
butchers of Chicago. 

(216) 



Types and Breeds of Hogs 



217 



and summer. Oats, rye and wheat make good winter 
pasturage. 

296. Lard Hogs. The hogs with large, spreading 
hams and shoulders, short bodies and broad backs, 
thick neck and jowls, with deep layers that contain a 
large amount of lard-bearing tissue as compared with 
the lean cuts, are called lard hogs. The Poland-Chinas, 
Berkshire, Duroc-Jerseys and Chester-Whites belong 
to this class. 

297. Bacon Hogs are long in body, deep in sides, 
with comparatively narrow back, narrow, light hams 




Fig. 142. Three representative Duroc-Jerseys. 

and shoulders, and light, muscular neck. They lack 
the deep layers of fatty tissue found in the lard hogs. 
They have a strong muscular development, and hence 
dress out a large percentage of lean meat. Bacon hogs 
furnish a large proportion of the expensive cuts, such as 
choice hams and breakfast bacons. The Yorkshires and 
Tamworths are the leading breeds belonging to this 
class. 

298. Duroc- Jersey. The Duroc-Jersey breed has prob- 
ably descended from several strains of red hogs. The 
hair is coarse, and ears lopped forward. The back is 



218 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 




short, slightly arched, and supports a broad, well- 
rounded body. The shoulders and hams are very heavy 
and thick-fleshed. Duroc-Jerseys are splendid feeders 
and good grazers and are justly popular in all sections. 
299. The Poland-China breed is a native of Ohio. 
The color is black, with white points on feet and head. 
The ears are lopped, jowls are large, and the back has 
a gradual yet moderate arch the entire length. The 
body is shorter, but more spreading than in the Berk- 
shire. As a rule, the sides and hams contain a smaller 
percentage of lean meat than the Berkshires. The pigs 
of this breed mature early, and as feeders under confine- 
ment, are rated among the best, and are especially liked 




t"ig. 144. Three reiJresenf ative lierkshires. 



Types and Breeds of Hogs 219 

in the corn-belt states. They are typically represen- 
tative of the lard-hog type. 

300. Berkshires take their names from a shire, or 
county, of England. Berkshires have erect ears, a black 
body, generally with a white streak in the face, or jowl, 
and four white feet. The back of the Berkshires is nearly 
straight, with moderate breadth. The barrel is long, 
with slightly arched ribs and deep sides. They are strong 
and active and are good grazers. The Berkshire is a 
good feeder and affords a good quantity of bacon. 




Fig. 145. Three representative Tamworths. 

301. Tamworth. The native home of the Tamworth 
breed is in the counties of central England. They are 
typical of the bacon type of hog, so popular in some sec- 
tions of England and Canada. With the increasing high 
prices for fancy bacon, they are becoming more widely 
recognized than ever before. The color is red. The back 
is long, while the sides are moderately deep and contain 
a large amount of "streak-o'-lean" bacon. The hams 
and shoulders are without the large amount of external 
fat so noticeably present in Poland-Chinas and Duroc- 
Jerseys. 



CHAPTER XXX 
TYPES AND BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS 

302. Uses. Sheep and goats are valued for wool and 
mutton. In some countries goats are kept not only 
for mutton and hair, but to supply milk. Sheep and 
goats are great grazers. They will make more out of a 
pasture than any other class of animal, consuming! 
not only the grass, but also many of the weeds and leaves 
of shrubs. Sheep are grown in large herds in the west- 
ern states, primarily for wool. In recent years many 
farmers in the South have found small flocks of sheep 
or goats valuable additions to the stock of their farms. 

303. The Wool produced by the different breeds 
differs much in quantity, quality and character. In 
some strains of the Merinos the clip of wool may equal 
one-fourth or even one-third of the animal's gross weight. 
The wool is much less in the mutton breeds. The breeds 




Fig. 146. Merino sheep, r'hampion flock at St. Louis laii. lIUiioi, State lair, 
and Charleston, S. C, Exposition, 1902. 

(220) 



Types and Breeds of Sheep and Goats 221 

are usually divided into three classes, according to the 
length of the wool. The long-wooled breeds are repre- 
sented by the Lincoln, Leicester and Cotswold, while 




Fig. 147. Grand champion car-load of mutton sheep. Chicago International 
Exposition, 1901. 

the short-wooled class includes the Southdown, Shrop- 
shire and Cheviot. The fine-wooled breeds are repre- 
sented by the Rambouillet or French Merino, and 
Delaines or Spanish Merino. The fineness, as well as 
length of staple, is an important quality in wools. 
Dense fleeces, referring to the number of fibers per 
square inch, are desired by both the manufacturers 
and the sheep breeders. The dense fleeces afford more 
protection to the body, and deteriorate less from expos- 
ure to the rain, cold and dirt than the thin fleeces. 

304. The Merino Breeds have descended from old 
Spanish stocks. They represent the highest type of 
wool producer. The fleece is fine, dense on the body, 
and uniform in length. The oil, or yolk, on the fleece 
causes the wool to catch a great deal of dirt on the outer 
layers, giving the animal a dark color. The Merinos 
are hardy, healthy and excellent foragers. They thrive 
even when the range is poor. 



222 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



305. Mutton Breeds. The mutton qualities in sheep 
correspond to the same set of characters associated with 
the beef breeds of cattle. (See ^268.) Sheep dress out from 
50 to 60 per cent of their live weight in marketable prod- 




Fig. 148. A famous Angora goat. 

ucts. The leg, rib and loin cuts include nearly three- 
fourths of the total weight, and over 90 per cent of the 
value. Thus it is plain that a good mutton sheep means 
one with a blocky form, full, heavy legs, deep body, level, 
broad back, and short head and neck. 

306. Goats. Goats are natural browsers, and not 



Types and Breeds of Sheep and Goats 223 

grazers. They prefer the slender tips and twigs of young 
trees to grass, and on this account are often use'd to 
keep down the underbush in pastures. In the Southwest 
they find a cUmate well suited to their habits. The fibers 
of the fleece are very long and some coarser than fine 
wool. The fleece of the Angora goats is known as mohair. 
Milking breeds of goats have been highly developed in 
some countries. In the island of Malta the inhabitants 
depend very largely on goats for supplies of milk and 
butter. Milking-goats have been bred for centuries 
in Switzerland. Fine specimens give from four to seven 
quarts of milk a day. 



CHAPTER XXXI 
FARM POULTRY 

307. Poultry Should be Raised at Every Home. Only 
a small outlay of capital is required to establish a pay- 
ing poultry business. The natural food of nearly all 
members of the bird family is largely insects, small 
animals and fish. The eggs of all sorts of poultry are 
a rich, nutritious food. Ducks* and geese produce a fine 
quality of feathers as well as eggs for food. 

308. Hatching and Rearing Poultry. The growth of 
the germ in the egg begins at a temperature just a little 
below that of the bird's body. The temperature of the 
blood in chickens is given as 107.6° Fahr. or 42° C. In 
the brooding season the small blood-vessels on the 
breast of the chicken become more prominent. The 
time required to hatch, called the period of incubation, 
will vary with the freshness of the eggs and the kind 
of birds. The period of incubation for several kinds of 
birds is as follows: 

Canary bird 14 days 

Pigeon 18 days 

Chicken 21 days 

Guinea 25 days 

Duck, geese and peacock 28 days 

Turkey 28 days 

309. Artificial Incubation. Artificial incubation is 
a very old practice in some countries. Incubators 
have become common in recent years wherever much 

(224) 



Farm Poultry 



225 



attention is given to the raising of poultry. It costs a 
great deal less to hatch, say, one hundred eggs artifici- 
ally than it does to feed seven or eight hens. The addi- 
tional advantage claimed for the incubator is that the 




Fig. 149. A modern incubator. 



hens soon begin laying, and that the chickens can be more 
easily cared for in brooders. There are two classes of 
incubators on the market, — the water -heated and the 
dry-heated. (Fig. 149.) 

310. Poultry-Houses and Grounds. Poultry -houses 
and yards should be located on well-drained, and, pref- 
erably, on loose, sandy soils. They should be cleaned 
regularly to prevent the accumulation of filth that 



226 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

might harbor disease-producing germs and parasite^. 
The htter in the nests should be changed often. A dust 
box should be in every poultry-yard. The poultry-house 
may be simple in our climate, providing only a good 
coop, with the north and w.est sides closed, leaving 
the south wall partly open. The perches and nests 
should not be very high. (Fig. 150.) 



Fig. 150. A simple poultry bouse. 

311. Feeding Poultry. The natural food of all domes- 
ticated fowls, and, in fact, of nearly all birds, consists 
of insects, seeds and grasses. They require plenty of ' 
nitrogenous feeds, like insects, meat scraps, etc. For 
confined fowls, cottonseed meal, milk, or the tankage 
from the slaughter-house, make an excellent substitute 
for the animal feeds. Any of the grains may be fed to 
poultry. Green feed is very desirable for laying hens. 
All birds require grit to assist in the grinding of the feed 
in the gizzard. Coarse, sharp sand, crushed stone, or 



Farm Poultry 



227 



finders, etc., are desirable forms of grit. Crushed oyster- 
shells, or bones, supply the material for making the 
bones in young growing chickens and the egg-shells for 
laying hens. 

312. Improving Poultry. To improve a breed or 
flock of poultry, use the eggs from the individuals hav- 
ing the desired characters. In breeding for increased 
egg-production, the number of eggs laid by a hen in 
a year is of far more importance than the color of the 
feathers. A hen lay- 
ing 200 or more eggs 
a year is worth many 
times more than one 
laying from 30 to 50. 
There are many poor 
layers in all flocks. 
By using trap-nests 
for a full -year test 
the Maine Experiment 
Station found that in a number of spring pullets all bred 
pure to type, only 3 laid more than 200 eggs; 10 laid 
175 to 200; 11 laid 150 to 174, and so on down; 11 laid 
75 to 100; 6 laid 50 to 75, and 5 laid 36 to 49. 

In the development of the breeds of poultry, much 
attention has been given to perpetuating the color and 
character of the feathers, combs, wattles, etc. In recent 
years, greater efforts have been made to strengthen the 
more important qualities, such as regularity and fre- 
quency of laying, early maturity and other qualities, 
depending on the kind of poultry. 

313. Preserving Eggs. Eggs decay as the result of 
the growth of germs in the rich substances of the egg. 
Warm temperatures favor the rapid development of 




Fig. 151. A home-made trap-nest. 



228 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

the germs, hence eggs decay much faster in the summer. 
Just how the germ makes its entrance through the shell 
is not fully understood. Of the many kinds of egg-pre- 
servatives, none are so satisfactory as sodium silicate, 
commonly called "water-glass." The eggs may be packed 
away in a solution of about one part of water-glass to 




Fig. 152. White Leghorns — popular representatives of the egg-laying, 
or Mediterranean class. 

twelve parts of clean boiled water and kept as long 
as desired. A mixture of salty lime-water is often used. 
In either case, the egg-shell should be punctured with 
a needle before boiling to prevent the shells cracking 
when placed in hot water. 



Farm Poultry 229 

314. Classes of Poultry. There are many classes and 
breeds of poultry, such as chickens, turkeys, ducks, 
geese, guineas, pigeons and peacocks. Some are raised 
largely for eggs, others for meat or feathers, and others 
still to satisfy a fancy. There are two well-marked 
types of chickens, — the laying type and the meat type. 
A combination of the two gives the general-purpose type. 

315. Egg Breeds. The so-called egg breeds are natives 
of countries bordering the Mediterranean sea. They 
are of medium size, good layers, but often poor sitters 
when young. They are easily frightened, very hardy, 
active and make good foragers. The most popular rep- 
resentatives of this class are the Leghorns, Minorcas and 
Hamburgs. 

316. The Meat 
Breeds are na- 
tives of Asia, 
hence are some- 
times called the 
Asiatic breeds. 
They are large, 

heavy bodied, ;^'' f' 

slow moving, 
having a gentle 
disposition, and 
are persistent 
sitters and good 
mothers. They 
are generally 
considered poor 
layers, though 

tne pullets are Xug. 153. a Light Brahma cockerel. Typical repre- 
often excellent sentative of the Asiatic class. 




230 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



layers. They are especially desirable because of the 
large size of the "broilers" and "friers." The best- 
known representatives are Brahmas, Cochins, Langshans 
and Faverolle, the latter a French breed. 




Fig. 154. ' Barred Plymouth U... k- 1 n.nin- .t in. il . klit\in!,' 
their pu ture^ " tuok." 

317. The General-purpose Breeds, such as the Plym- 
outh Rocks, Wyandottes and Dorkings, are usually 
of fair size, furnish meat of good quality, and will pro- 
duce a liberal quantity of eggs under favorable condi- 
tions. It has never been found possible to completely 
combine into a single animal the milk and butter-fat 
qualities of the dairy types of cattle with the meat- 
forming qualities of the beef breeds. The same body 
cannot be made to do both kinds of work to the same 
degree of perfection. So in poultry, we may blend, but 
cannot combine the egg- and meat-producing qualities. 
In selecting a breed, one should first decide what class 
of chickens will give the greatest return under the 
conditions, — a special-purpose egg or meat breed, or a 



Farm Poultry 



231 



blend of qualities. The general - purpose breeds have 
good egg-producing power, and produce good-sized friers 
and broilers. They are often used for mothers for the 
egg breeds. (Fig. 157.) 

318. Other Classes of Poultry. On many farms 
ducks and geese are raised for meat and feathers. There 
are great differences in the adaptability of the breeds. 
Ponds of water are not essential for success with this 
class of poultry. The food should be given to these birds 
in a soaked or softened condition, because their crops 
are less perfectly developed than in chickens, hence do 
not thrive so well on hard grains. 




fig. 155. Turkeys come home to roost. 



232 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 




Fig. 156. An effective method of confining a "cluck" and her "peeps." 

319. Turkeys are native to North America. While 
they have lost much of their shyness and roving dispo- 
sition by long association with man, they still must 
have the run of a large place for best success. The 
Bronze, White Holland and Black Norfolk are the most 
popular strains. 

320. The Care of Young Poultry. Freshly hatched 
fowls of all classes are quite delicate and therefore call 
for special attention. It is important that they be kept 
warm and dry until the feathers are fairly well developed. 
Unless the mothers are confined at night, they will most 
likely lead the young chickens into the wet, dewy grass 
in the early morning hours. Nothing is so important as 
warm, dry coops and regular feeding in rearing young 
chickens, turkeys, ducks or geese. The feed should be 
specially prepared and offered five to seven times during 
the day. No feed is needed for the first day or two. The 
first food should be such as may be digested without grit, 



Farm FouLtry 233 

such as ground grain or stale bread just well moistened 
in skim-milk. It makes little difference whether the milk 
is fresh or sour. They should be given no more feed than 
they will clean up promptly. The feed supplies to young 
chickens, and older ones as well, should contain ground 
bone or other form of mineral matter. It is not so im- 
portant that they have animal food, as plenty of mineral 




Fig. 157. The Plymouth Rocks are often used for 
mothers for Leghorns. 

matter and protein. The latter may be of either vegetable 
or animal origin. Investigations for the cause of death 
among young poultry showed that 15 per cent had tuber- 
culosis, due no doubt to imperfect sanitation; 38 per cent 
had intestinal troubles, and 75 per cent had diseased 
hvers, influenced no doubt by unbalanced rations. 
(^ 335.) Shelter, feeding and exercise are points to be 
closely studied. The greatest losses which come to the 
poultry raiser are those due to disease in young stock 
— and, too, from diseases that can be prevented. 



234 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



321. Judging Poultry. Fig. 158 shows the names of 
the more obvious points in chickens. The size, and color- 
ings of the feathers are important points in distinguishing 
the different breeds. Purity in color markings does not 
always signify that the animal possesses the other 
qualities that are usually associated with the breed. 




Fig. 158. Names of the points considered in describing chickens. 



1. Comb. 

2. Face. 

3. Wattles. 

4. Ear-lobes. 

5. Hackle. 

6. Breast. 

7. Back. 

8. Saddle. 



9. Saddle-feathers. 

10. Sickles. 

11. Tail -coverts. 

12. Main tail feathers. 

13. Wing-bow. 

14. Wing coverts form- 

ing wing-bar. 

15. Secondaries, wing- 

bay. 



16. Primaries or flight- 

feathers, wing-butts. 

17. Point of breastbone. 

18. Thighs. 

19. Hocks. 

20. Shanks or legs. 

21. Spur. 

22. Toes or claws. 



CHAPTER XXXII 
NUTRITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY 

322. Nutrition of the Animal Body. The nutrition 
of the body of the farm animals is through the same 
processes which have heen previously described for 
the human body in the study of physiology. The feeds 
are taken in by the tongue and lips, masticated by the 
teeth, and digested in the stomach and intestinal canal. 

323. Nutritive Substances. Animals require the same 
classes of mdritive substances to provide for growth, 
repair and waste as in the human body. The sub- 
stances which are taken into the digestive tract are 
not available for the nourishment of the body until they 
have been rendered soluble, absorbed and become a part 
of the blood. The various cells of the body absorb the 
sugars, proteids, and salts directly from the blood. These 
substances are absorbed through the cell -walls, just 
as the yeast absorbs the sugar and albumen from the 
solution used in our early experiments. (^ 9a.) 

324. Digestive Tract of Domestic Animals. There 
are important differences in the digestive tracts of the 
several classes of domestic animals, such that each 
is adapted to the different classes of substances upon 
which they feed and thrive. 

325. Digestion by Fowls. Birds swallow their food 
whole without chewing. It passes first into the crop, 
where it is stored and softened by soaking. (Fig. 159 I.) 
Then it passes into the thick-walled, muscular stomach 
or gizzard. The gizzard is supplied with powerful 

(235) 



236 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



muscles which break 
This is greatly aided 
swallow. 

326. Herbivorous 

usually be eaten in 
needed nutrients. In 
is not only of a great 
chambered stomach. 



up the food eaten by the fowls, 
by the sharp gravel which fowls 

Animals. Vegetable food must 
greater quantity to furnish the 

herbivorous animals the intestine 

length, but often has a large and 

furnishing a large laboratory 




Fig. 159. Stomachs of some domestic animals. I, Crop and gizzard of fowl. 
B, glandular stomach; C, gizzard. II. Interior of horse stomach showing 
the two kinds of lining. A, left sac with tough white lining; B.tright 
sac with soft red lining where the digestive juices are secreted; E, 
duodenum. III. Stomach of ox as seen from right upper face (Chauveau), 
and IV, Stomach of sheep with second, third and fourth divisions open. 
A, oesophagus; B' Rumen, or first division of stomach; C, reticulum; D, 
omasum; E, abomasum, or true stomach; F, duodenum. 



Nutrition of the Animal Body 237 

in which the digestive processes may be carried out. 
In the stomach of the liorse, which is comparatively 
small, two regions may be distinguished, of which only 
the right or second part secretes digestive juices. 

327. Ruminating Animals. In cattle and all split- 
hoof animals, the stomach has four more or less distinct 
compartments. (Fig. 159 III and IV.) When a sheep or 
cow bites off a bit of grass, it is moistened with a small 
amount of saliva and swallowed without chewing, pass- 
ing into the stomach, or paunch. The stomach is a mere 
store-house. After a time the animal finds a quiet place, 
regurgitates a ball of grass, called a cud, which is slowly 
ground up between the molar teeth. This mass is again 
swallowed and passes into the second stomach, and 
then on to the fourth or true stomach where the gastric 
digestion commences. Ruminating animals continue 
the digestive processes for a longer period, chew their 
food finer, and, in general, digest a larger per cent of the 
protein, carbohydrates, crude fiber and fat, than non- 
ruminants, like the horse. 

328. Nutrients in Feeds. The animal must secure 
from the feeds consumed all the substances needed for 
the support and growth of the animal body. The undi- 
gested parts form the waste. The nutritive substances 
actually secured from the feeds are classed as: 

1. Proteids (albumin, albuminoids, amides, etc.). 

2. Fats (oils, fats). 

3. Carbohijdrates (sugar, starches, gums, celluloses). 

4. Mineral Matters (salts of the elements found 
in plants). 

5. Water. 

329. Functions of the Nutrients. The two chief uses 
of the nutrients in animal feeds are to supply: 



238 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

1. Building material for muscle, bones, skin, etc., 
and repair the waste. 

2. Heat to keep the body warm, and to supply 
energy for work. 

The several classes of nutrients act in different ways 
in fulfilling these functions. The proteids from the 
muscles, tendons, gristle, hair and hoofs supply the pro- 
teids of blood, milk and other fluids, as well as the whites 
and yellow in eggs. The chief fuel or heat-giving ingre- 
dients are the carbohydrates and fats. These are con- 
sumed in the body or stored as fat to be used as occa- 
sion demands. The proteids may supply energy, though 
it is not supposed that they do so in the presence of 
sufficient fats and carbohydrates. 

330. Fuel Value of Feeds. Starches, sugars, and fats, 
are burned (oxidized) in the body and yield heat and 
power, just as the same substances would if burned 
in the stove to heat the house or under the boiler to 
make the steam for the engine. The heat or energy is 
developed gradually as the needs of the body demand. 
Scientists have ways of determining the fuel value of 
substances, and for the purpose of comparison use as 
the unit of measurement the calorie (equal to the heat 
required to raise one kilogram of water one degree Centi- 
grade, or one pound of water four degrees Fahrenheit). 

331. Digestibility of Feeds. The value of a substance 
as a feed depends not only upon the quantity of the 
different kinds of nutrients contained, but also upon 
how much of the nutrients are in a form that they can 
be digested and used for the support of the animal 
body. The usefulness of a substance for feeding depends, 
then, not on its gross weight, but upon the amount of 
building material and heat energy which the animal 



Nutrition of the Animal Body 239 

may extract from it. In comparing feeding substances 
we should not only know the actual amount of proteids, 
fat, carbohydrates, etc., contained, but what per cent of 
these substances is digestible. 

In some digestion tests at the Oklahoma Experiment 
Station with cockerels, it was found that 79.4 per cent 
of the whole kaffir corn was digested, i. e., retained 
in the animal's body; in the same way 81.9 per cent of 
corn, and 64.1 per cent of cowpeas were digested. 

332. Digestibility of the Nutrients. In the digestion 
tests mentioned above the composition of the substance 
fed, the nutrients digested and the waste, were as fol- 
lows for each 100 grams consumed: 

Protein Carbohydrates and fats 

Nutrients in Kaffir corn. . . 11.88 grams 75.16 grams 

Digested and retained 6.28 grams 73.09 grams 

Undigested waste 5.60 grams 2.07 grams 

In the above case it is noted that nearly all the 
carbohydrates were digested, though only about half 
of the proteids were used in the cockerel's body. Similar 
tests have been made for many kinds of feeds with 
many kinds of animals. 

We see from this example that a chemical analysis 
giving the quantity of the nutrients is not an exact 
statement of the available nutrients. Appendix D gives 
the average results of many tests of the digestibility of 
American feeding materials. See also tables of compo- 
sition in Appendix. 

333. Ratio of Digestible Nutrients. In feeding ani- 
mals it is important, as will be shown, to know the ratio 
of the digestible proteids, or flesh -forming nutrients, 
to the effective heat -forming substances. This ratio 



240 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

is called the "nutritive ratio" and is taken to mean the 
ratio of tiie digestible proteids to the digestible car- 
bohydrates plus 2.25 times the fat. (The fat has two 
and one-fourth times as much heat energy per pound 
as the carbohydrates.) Thus, in the preceding example, 
the nutritive ratio is 1:11.6, which means that the heat- 
producing nutrients are 11.6 times greater than the 
tissue-building nutrients. 

Example with Cowpeas. 





Proteids 


Carbohydrates 


Fats 




Grams 


Grams 


Grams 


Nutrients in cowpeas.. . . , 


.. 21.44 


62.16 


2.38 


Digested and retained . . 


. . 8.68 


55.30 


2.24 



Undigested waste 12.76 6.86 .14 

Ratio for digestible nutrients is 8.68 :(55. 30+2.24x2.25) = 

8.68:(55.30+5.60) = 

8.68: 60 90 = nutritive ratio 1:7.01 

The ratio calculated according to the chemical 
composition is 1:3.1, which we see would be quite mis- 
leading, judging by the actual ratio of digestible nutri- 
ents, which is 1:7.01. 

334. Application of Ratios. The ratio of flesh-form- 
ing nutrients to the heat-producing nutrients should be 
suited to the condition and requirements of the animal. 
Animals at heavy work, where the muscle materials 
are being used up, require relatively more proteids 
than when merely at rest. Likewise, young and grow- 
ing animals require plenty of building material, or 
animals which produce substances like milk, eggs 
and wool — substances that contain large quantities 
of proteids — should have food rich in proteids. {See 
table E in Appendix.) 



Nutrition of the Animal Body 241 

335. Economy of Balanced Rations. When the pro- 
teids and heat -producing substances are suppUed in 
the ratio approximately in which they are consumed, 
the ratio is said to be "balanced." There may be wide 
limits in the nutritive ratio without imparing the general 
health of the animals, but there may be a great differ- 
ence in the cost of properly nourishing the animal. The 
feeds rich in proteids are very expensive, and it is desired 
that they be used only in the formation of nitrogenous 
products, and never to supply energy. The cheaper 
starchy foods should be used in sufficient quantity 
to supply heat and muscular energy. Thus, we see 
that by knowing something of the composition and 
digestibility of the common feeds, we may combine 
them in such proportions that the animal may be prop- 
erly nourished at small cost. 

336. Kinds of Rations. Rations are classed accord- 
ing to their effect on the animal, as regards bodily weight 
or function. The most usual designations are: 

(a) Deficient ration is one in which the animal 
loses weight. 

(b) Maintenance ration is one which allows just 
enough to keep the animal in good health without loss 
or gain in bodily weight. This is usually about three- 
fourths to one pound of nutrients to the hundred pounds 
of live weight. 

(c) Growing ration is one allowing of a regular 
ga'n in weight. The amount of feed which a young 
animal may profitably consume varies widely, usually 
from 2 to 4 per cent of live weight. 

(d) Work ration is one that will sustain an animal 
at work without loss of weight or vigor. 

(e) Dairy ration is one that supplies the materials 



242 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



for maintenance of bodily conditions, as well as those 
used in secreting the milk. 

There are many other kinds of special rations, refer- 
ring to the bodily needs of animals maintained under 
special conditions, such as egg rations, wool rations, 
etc. 

337. Planning a Ration. Suppose it is desired to 
know how much and what kinds of feeds to give to a 
dairy cow of 1,000 pounds live weight, giving two gal- 
lons of milk per day. Turning to table of standard 
feeding requirements (Appendix F.) we have: 



Dairj' cow, 16 lbs. milk. 



Live weight Total 

pounds dry 

required matter 

. 1,000 27 



Digestible nutrients 
Pro- Carbo- 

tein hydrate Fat 

2.0 11.0 0.4 



The problem is to find the combination of feeds 
that will supply the above nutrients in approximately 
the amounts indicated. Suppose we have alfalfa hay, 
wheat bran and cottonseed meal. After studying the 
tables of composition and digestible nutrients as given 
in the Appendix, we may make a trial guess, with the 
result as follows: 





Amount 


Dry 

matter 


Digestible nutrients 




Feeds 


Proteid 


Carbohy- 
drates, fat 


Cost 


Alfalfa hay, dry. 

Mixed hay 

Wheat bran .... 
Cottonseed meal. 


10 lbs. 
10 lbs. 

5 lbs. 

1 lb. 


9.2 

8.5 

4.4 

.9 


1.10 
.44 
.60 
.40 


4.2 

4.4 

2.3 

.4 




Total.- 


26 lbs. 


23.0 


2.54 


11.3 






The result shows that we do not have enough dry 
matter, and too much proteid by .54 pounds. The 



Nutrition of the Animal Body 



243 



latter is usually very expensive and would be advisable 
only when the alfalfa was very cheap. Suppose we 
decrease the alfalfa, increase the mixed hay, and leave 
out the cottonseed meal, which may be done when we 
feed rich nitrogenous hay, like alfalfa. Then we try: 





Amount 


Dry 
matter 


Digestible nutrients 




Feeds 


Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates, fat 


Cost 


Alfalfa hay 

Mixed hay 

Bran 


5 lbs. 

20 lbs. 

5 lbs. 


4.6 

16.9 

4.4 


.55 

.88 
.60 


2.1 

8.9 
2.3 








Totals 


30 lbs. 


25.9 


2.03 


13.3 






The result is quite close enough. Close observation 
may suggest slight variations to suit the needs of differ- 
ent animals. It should be understood that these "stand- 
ards" are averages, and that particular animals may 
require more or less than the amounts indicated. 

338. The Amount of Feed required depends on the 
size and condition, and also on the individuality of 
the animal. By many carefully conducted trials, inves- 
tigators of feeding problems have made approximations 
of the dry matter, protein, carbohydrates, etc., needed 
per hundred or thousand pounds live weight of animal 
per day. (See table of feeding standards in Appendix.) 

339. Roughage and Concentrated Foods. According 
to the per cent of digestible nutrients in feed stuffs 
they are classed as Roughage and Concentrates. Sub- 
stances like hay, which contain a large per cent of undi- 
gestible substance, are called Forage or Roughage, and 
those like the grains, cottonseed meal, etc., in which 
nearly all is digestible, are called Concentrates. Rough- 



244 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

age is desirable to give bulk to the ration. Straw is an 
excellent roughage, yet if fed on straw alone, an animal 
would be unable to eat enough to secure the needed 
nutrients. If fed on concentrates entirely, the digestive 
juice could not act on all parts sufficiently and disorder 
would follow. Water and fiber give bulk to feeds. 
Ruminating animals require about two-thirds of their 
feed to be in the form of roughage. For horses, about 
one-half should be in the form of roughage. 

340. The Food Should Be Palatable. The food supplied 
should be relished. A ration may be perfectly balanced, 
so far as its nutrients are concerned, and yet if it is not 
palatable, good results may not be secured. One way 
of making foods palatable is to give a change — change 
in hay or in concentrates. In changing from one kind 
of feed to another, however, the change should be made 
gradually. Abrupt changes in feed are likely to throw 
highly fed animals "off feed." Animals relish variety 
at the dinner-table just as we do. The good effect of 
green feeds in winter time is probably due in part to 
this fact. Green feeds through the winter may be easily 
supplied in nearly all parts of the South by sowing fall 
oats or wheat. Green feeds aid the digestion of other" 
feeds. 

341. Importance of Salt for Stock. Every good 
farmer knows that his stock needs salt, and takes pains 
to supply them. All classes of farm animals should 
have salt where they can get it every day. Almost 
every animal will take salt every day. Either fine 
or rock-salt may be used, and, to prevent waste from 
rains, it should, if possible, be under a shed. Ruminating 
anim.als (sheep and cattle) need salt more regularly 
and abundantly than horses. Dairy cows should always 



Nutrition of the Animal Body 245 

receive special attention in this respect. Salt aids diges- 
tion, improves the appetite, and lessens the danger 
from disease. Small quantities of salt in the feed will 
often stimulate the appetite of sick animals and acts 
as a good tonic. 

342. Preparations of Feeds. The extent to which 
different feeds should be prepared by grinding, shred- 
ding, soaking, cooking, etc., before feeding is, in many- 
cases, an open question. When grain is fed to ruminants 
it is best to have it milled, but in other cases it is fre- 
quently without advantages, except in the case of kafiir 
corn. Kaffir corn should be ground for all farm stock. 

343. Racial Peculiarities are observed in the way 
different breeds dispose of the feed they consume above 
that required for maintenance. This is important. The 
manner in which an animal disposes of the feed above 
that required for maintenance governs the profit or 
loss in animal husbandry. It is this extra quantity of 
feed that makes flesh, milk, eggs, or performs work. 
If the maintenance ration be assumed to be eight pounds 
of dry matter and the feed contains twenty-five pounds, 
what becomes of the additional seventeen pounds 
of feed? The Hereford steer would deposit it in the 
loin steaks and thick quarters. The animals would 
gain in weight. The dairy cow would probably not gain 
in weight, but use it in making the fat, sugar and curd 
of milk. An animal is valuable for its ability to trans- 
form large quantities of crude farm feeds into special 
products, such as valuable cuts of meat, milk, wool, 
etc., or to perform labor. 

344. Individual Peculiarities are also to be noted. 
The average dairy cow will profitably use about six 
pounds of feed above the maintenance ration. Many 



246 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

animals will be able to profitably use only three or four 
pounds, while still others may return a profit on twelve 
or fifteen pounds. The intelligent feeder knows how 
to feed to get best results, but in every herd or flock 
there are "good feeders" and "poor feeders." The 
wise breeder notes the peculiarities in selecting his 
animals for propagation. "Like begets like," in habits 
as well as in form. 

345. Skill in Feeding. The observant farmer or 
feeder will soon learn the peculiarities of his animals. 
He never feeds an animal so abundantly that the appe- 
tite will be lax at the next feeding. He will feed often 
and regularly. In fattening hogs, steers, etc., he begins 
with light rations, and increases gradually as circum- 
stances suggest until the stock are on "full feed." 

346. Pasturage. Wherever possible, provision should 
be made for stock to gather green food from pastures. 
It is a benefit to the fields to sow them in winter annuals 
and allow the stock to graze during dry weather. This 
is especially desirable for poultry, dairy cattle and hogs. 
In some cases it is profitable to haul the green feed to 
the stock, rather than pasture it. This latter practice 
is spoken of as "soiling" and the crop as a "soiling 
crop." 

347. Shelter for Farm Animals. A simple shelter 
to shield stock and poultry from wet or cold weather 
is necessary on every farm. This need not be so elabo- 
rate and costly as those used in colder regions. Shelter 
reduces the cost of feeding. Exposure reduces the 
flow of milk in dairy cows and the frequency of laying 
in poultry. 



CHAPTER XXXIIT 
FARM DAIRYING 

348. Farm Dairying. The dairy cow on the farm 
is a necessity, first and foremost, because she supplies 
food for the family which in quality and cheapness is 
without comparison. Milk and eggs supply the protein 
nutrients needed by the human body cheaper than 
meats. A pound of steak, a dozen eggs, or a quart of 
milk supply about the same amount of protein, yet 
the selling price of the milk, on an average, is less than 
half the cost of the others. Milk and butter are not 
only important foods, but valuable condiments used 
in many ways in rendering other foods palatable. It 
is these qualities that make a market for dairy products 
the world over. 

349. A Natural Advantage of the South is the ease 
with which green feeds may be grown throughout the 
entire year. Many dairies are profitable without green 
feeds, yet every one recognizes that fresh green feed, 
either in pastures or in soiUng crops, is a great aid in 
increasing the flow of milk. Mild winters remove the 
necessity for expensive barns, and reduce the quantity 
of feed needed to keep the cow in splendid condition. 

350. The Distinctive Quality of the Dairy Cow is 
her capacity to manufacture large quantities of milk, 
rich in butter - fat, from common feeds. A cow that 
does not give more than two gallons of rich milk per 
day should be discarded. The richness of the milk is 
always to be considered. The Babcock test (Fig. 160) 

(247) 



248 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



places easily at the disposal of every farmer a means 
of determining the butter-producing quahties of every 
cow in the herd. The success or failure of the farm dairy 
to yield a profit on the outlay for land, building, feed 
and labor, lies in the proper selection of the cows to 
compose the herd. 

351. The Babcock Test is a simple means of testing 
the milk to determine the amount of butter-fat (rich- 
ness) contained in a sample of milk. It takes its name 
from Professor Babcock, of the University of Wisconsin, 
who discovered the method of making the test. By its 

use the dairyman may learn which 
of his cows pay for their board. 
The milk from each cow is 
weighed, and a small sample used 
to determine the per cent of but- 
ter-fat. Knowing these two facts, 
the total butter-yield for each cow 
may be calculated. In this way 
the value of the cow is definitely 
known. It is easier and more 
reliable than a "churning test." 
In making the test, a measured quantity of milk is put 
into a special flask (Fig. 160), and to this a small 
quantity of acid is added. By following a few simple 
operations, for which directions come with every 
machine, the per cent of butter-fat is read off directly 
on the graduated neck of the bottle. Knowing the 
per cent of butter-fat and the quantity of milk, the 
amount of butter in each cow's milk may be quickly 
calculated. 

352. How Dairy Cows Are Valued. The dairy cow 
is valuable according to her ability to convert farm feeds 




Fig. 160. Apparatus used 
in making the Babcock 
test. 



Farm Dairying 



249 



into a milk rich in butter-fat. Creameries and dairies 
pay for milk according to the per cent of butter-fat, 
and not the mere gallons of milk. (See Fig. 124.) 

352a. (o) Farmer "A" runs a small butter dairy. He bought 
a Babcock Test, and made a test of each cow's milk with the fol- 
lowing results: 



Name of cow 



Blossom 
Flower . 
Nancy . 
Lily . . . 



Average daily 
flow of milk 



Ponnds 
23 
14 
31 
20 



Per cent of butter- 
fat in average 
samples 



Per cent 

2.3 
3.1 

6.5 



Pounds butter- 
fat daily 



Calculate the amount of butter-fat in each cow's milk. One 
poimd of butter-fat is equal to one and one-sixth pounds commer- 
cial butter. How much butter would these cows make in ten 
months? 

353. Other Uses of the Babcock Test. Creameries 
no longer buy milk by the "gallon," but pay so much 
a pound for the butter-fat. This does away with the 
temptation to water the milk. In cities, public dairies 
are required to sell pure milk, with a certain amount 
of butter-fat, usually not less than 3.5 per cent. By the 
use of the test, both the dairyman and the public offi- 
cials may easily know if the milk is up to the required 
standard of richness. The butter in buttermilk is often 
a source of considerable loss. By testing the buttermilk, 
or skim-milk, the dairyman may know if his methods 
get all the butter. 

354. Composition of Milk. Milk contains about 87 
per cent water and 13 per cent solids, divided as fol- 
lows: 5 per cent sugar, 3.3 per cent protein, 4 per cent 



250 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

fat and only 0.7 per cent mineral matter, or salts. The 
milk from different cows varies considerably. The solids 
may be as low as 10 per cent or as high as 18 per cent. 
The protein (the substance that thickens and forms 
clabber) may be low if cows do not receive feeds suflBi- 
ciently rich in protein. The fat varies, sometimes as 
low as 2.5 per cent and sometimes as high as 8 per cent. 
The legal standard required by state and city laws is 
3 to 3.5 per cent fat, and 9 to 9.5 per cent solids other 
than fat. The composition of milk is but slightly changed 
by the feed a cow consumes. The feed does affect the 
quantity of milk, however. 

355. How t'he Kind of Feed Affects the Flow of Milk. 
The feeding of dairy cows to increase the flow of milk 
has long been studied, both by the experiment stations 
and practical dairymen. The exact methods of scien- 
tific investigation where the feed consumed and the 
milk and butter produced are carefully weighed, teach 
that for the best results dairy cows should haver 

(a) An allowance of green, succulent food, either 
by pasturing, soiling crops or silage. 

(b) Some dry roughness in the form of hay, corn 
stover, or straw. 

(c) Grains or concentrates supplying sufficient pro- 
tein and carbohydrates to bring the ration to the normal 
dairy standard. 

Succulent feeds promote the digestion of other feeds, 
and give flavor and color to the milk and butter. 

Dry roughage has a wholesome effect on the health 
and general condition of the cows. The cow craves 
some dry feed which can be hastily swallowed, and 
while lying down at rest, be regurgitated and chewed 
over. 



Farm Dairying 



251 




356. Changes in Milk. Bacteria are the active agents 
of change in milk. The souring of milk is due to the 
formation of acid by bac- 
teria. When the acid 
accumulates in sufficient 
quantity, it combines with 
the protein to form the 
clabber. If bacteria are 
kept out of the milk, it will 
keep sweet indefinitely. 
The flavors developed in 
milk and butter are due 
to the presence of certain 
kinds of bacteria. Some give the butter undesirable 
flavor, and some greatly improve the flavor. The flavor 
of butter, however, may be controlled by destroying 
all the bacteria in the milk or cream by Pasteurization. 
(Tl 367.) After the milk or cream has been freed from 
the desirable, as well as undesirable germs, by the 
process mentioned, it is then cooled and desirable ones 



Fig 161. Microscopic appearance of 
ordinary milk sliowing fat globules 
and bacteria in the milk. The 
cluster of bacteria on left side are 
lactic acid -forming germs. After 
Russell, University of Wisconsin. 



Progeny of 
a Single Germ © 
In twelve hours. 







Fig. 102. Cooling hinders growth of bacteria. After RusselL 



252 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

are added and maintained at a temperature favorable 
to the development of proper flavors and texture in the 
butter. This is preferably between 60° and 70° Fahr. 
This practice is known as adding a "starter/' and is 
used extensively in commercial butter- 
making. In the absence of commercial 
starters,* a little sour milk will prove 
quite satisfactory. 

357. Gravity Creaming. 
When milk is "set" to allow 
the cream to rise, it should be 
kept cool. The cream rises 
quicker and more completely 
if kept cool by ice or moist 
cloths. Gravity creaming 
leaves from 0.2 to 1.0 per 
cent of the butter-fat in 
the milk even when the 
temperature of the milk 
is kept at 60° Fahr. The 
rise of the fat globules of 
milk to form "cream" is 
due to the fact that fat 
is lighter than water or 
the milk serum. 

Where circumstances 

1,1 1 c Fig. 163. A modern crsam separator. 

make the purchase ot a 

centrifugal separator inadvisable, resort must be had to 
gravity creaming. There are three methods of gravity 
creaming to be considered. The "shallow pan setting" 
involves the use of the conventional milk-pans about 
four inches deep. With favorable conditions of tempera- 
ture, about 60° Fahr., one may count on leaving from 




Farm Dairying 253 

0.1 to 1 per cent of fat in the skim-milk. An average 
will be about 0.5 per cent. Very deep vessels are used 
in the "deep setting method." The latter will give a 
more complete separation where the temperature can be 
kept low, leaving only about 0.3 per cent fat in the skim- 
milk. Sometimes the "water dilution method" is used. 
The fresh milk is diluted with an equal volume of water 
before setting. This renders the milk unsuitable for 
domestic use, and, besides, has been found to leave 
more butter-fat in the milk than any system of gravity 
creaming. 

358. Centrifugal Creaming. The cream separator is a 
machine for separating the cream from milk while fresh. 
It separates cream much better, quicker and with less 
work than gravity creaming. Good separators leave 
only 0.02 to 0.08 per cent of the butter-fat in the milk. 
The separator also gives a cleaner cream than can be 
obtained by the usual methods. The effectiveness of 
cream separators is due to the action of centrifugal force, 
which has a tendency to throw the heavier particles to 
the outside. Cream being lighter than skimmed milk, 
it is thrown to the center and the skimmed milk thrown 
to the outside of a rapidly revolving hollow ball. 

358a. Farmer Smith milked ten cows, giving an average of 
6,000 pounds of milk per year. He used the gravity creaming pro- 
cess and lost one-third to three-fourths pound of butter on every 
hundred pounds of milk due to imperfect separation of the cream. 
His neighbor advised the purchase of a cream separator which 
would leave only one-twentieth pound of butter-fat in the milk, 
telling him that besides saving the difference in butter-fat he would 
be able to feed his calves the fresh-skimmed warm milk. Estimate 
the difference and give your advice to Farmer Smith. 

359. Sanitary Dairy Products. In the production 
of sanitary dairy products, great care must be observed 



254 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

in the following particulars: (1) The healthfulness 
of the animals. (2) The healthfulness of the milker. 
(3) The cleanliness of the stables. (4) The care in 
milking. (5) The care in keeping the milk. Unless 
all of these conditions are carefully observed, sanitary 
milk-production is an impossibility. 

360. The Healthfulness of the Animals. Unless the 
dairy cow is in a healthy condition, she should 
not be expected to secrete a healthy milk. All of the 
blood which goes to the manufacture of milk must pass 
through the circulation, and if any diseases are present 
the blood is apt to take up the germs producing them, 
and in some cases these same germs have been found 
in the milk. It will, therefore, be noted that the first 
essential in the production of sanitary dairy products 
is the presence of a healthy herd of cows. 

361. The Healthfulness of the Milker, On account 
of the fact that milk is peculiarly adaptable to the 
growth of germs, any one having a contagious or infec- 
tious disease should not come in contact with it. Germs 
are always present in such cases, as smallpox, typhoid 
fever, diphtheria, etc., and are certain to find their way 
into the product if the person afflicted is permitted 
to come in contact with the milk or butter. 

362. Cleanliness of the Stable. At best, the stable 
is difficult to free from bacteria. The great natural 
enemies of bacteria are light and sunshine. The stable 
should be kept clean, and there should always be pres- 
ent an abundance of fresh air and sunshine. The dark 
corners of the stable, filled with dust, are the houses 
of millions of germs which finally find their way into 
the milk and make it unfit for human food. 

363. Care in Milking. When miik first comes from 



Farm Dairying 



255 



a healthy cow, it is clean, wholesome, and free from 
bacteria or germs. It is also known that it is possible 
to produce milk with comparatively only a few germs 
by the exercise of care in milking. The care in milking 
consists in clean hands and clean clothes on the part 
of the milker, and the proper cleaning of the cow's 
udder before the milking begins. 




Fig. 164. Revolving barrel chum. 



364. Care in Keeping Milk. Milk is very susceptible 
to bad odors as well as germs, therefore it should be 
removed to a cool, clean place as soon as milked. The 
milking should precede the feeding, as there is always 
more or less dust present in feeding hay, and other 
undesirable odors are present when feeding silage or 
root crops. As soon as milked, the animal heat and 



256 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

animal odor should be removed by thoroughly airing 
and cooling the milk. 

365. Churning. The size, consistency and number 
of the butter-fat globules is not always the same. The 
object of churning is to cause these many, minute fat 
globules to unite to form larger ones. This is brought 
about by agitating the milk in such a way that the 
globules will rub against each other and unite. As 
temperature greatly affects the consistency of the 
globules it also affects the nature of the result in churn- 
ing. If the temperature is very low, the globules are 
hard and are less likely to adhere in the operation of 
churning. If the temperature is very high, it renders 
the globules quite soft and churning has a tendency to 
cause them to break up into even smaller particles. 
There are many other conditions besides the tempera- 
ture that affect the "gathering," or "breaking," of the 
butter-fat globules and the character or quality of 
the butter, such as the condition and breed of the cows, 
the feed of the cows, the temperature maintained dur- 
ing the ripening of the cream, the acidity of the cream 
and even the nature of the agitation given the cream 
in churning. As these conditions vary, so will the churn- 
ing temperature. Practical dairymen usually try to main- 
tain a temperature near 59 to 65 degrees in churning. 
The preference is usually for the lower temperatures be- 
cause of the better quality of the butter, although it will 
require a longer time to churn. There are many styles of 
churns on the market, but expert butter-makers usually 
prefer some form of revolving box or barrel churn, claim- 
ing that it gives a butter with better quality. Where the 
agitation is produced by paddles the grain of the butter 
is not so desirable as in the open-centered churns. 



Farm Dairying 257 

366. Judging Butter. Butter is now judged by a 
scale of points just as the breeds of live stock and crops 
are. The points of most importance are (1) flavor, 
(2) texture, (3) color, (4) salt, and (5) package. Varia- 
tions in flavor are due to several causes, such as breed 
of cows, individuality of cow, nature of feed, acidity of 
cream and kind of bacteria in the cream. Variations 
in texture are due chiefly to the nature of the feed and 
the temperature at which the cream ripens, and, also, 
the churning temperature, as discussed above. 

367. Pasteurization. One way of keeping milk 
longer than could be done under natural conditions, 
consists in heating to a temperature of 160° Fahr. 
and then rapidly cooling. This method of treating milk 
is known as Pasteurization, and takes its name after 
Pasteur, the great French bacteriologist. The object 
of heating and cooling is to destroy the majority of 
bacteria present, and prevent the others which are not 
affected at that temperature, from becoming active. 
The temperature given above is deemed sufficient to 
destroy all, at least all disease-producing, germs and is 
not high enough to affect the flavor of the milk. 

368. Clarification. We have just observed the 
practice of freeing milk from bacteria in order to make 
it "keep" longer. Now let us note the practice employed 
in freeing the milk from undesirable foreign matter. 
It matters not. how careful the milker is in doing his 
work, there is always more or less foreign matter, which 
passes through a "strainer." This substance may be 
separated from the milk by centrifugal force. The 
process is known as clarification, and the machine 
used is known as a clarifier. The machine is built on 
precisely the same plan as a cream separator. 

Q 



PART III— SPECIAL TOPICS 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

THE HOME LOT 

369. The Decoration of a Landscape with herbs, 
shrubs and trees has been called "picture-making out- 
of-doors." Whether we know it or not, all of us have 
a great appreciation of the beauty and grandeur of 
landscapes. We recognize that some landscapes are 
attractive, or that the surroundings of some homes 
look bleak. Again, there is the little cottage of the new- 




<''^'^^^t(':':^ti^^!^T^~^:=-^:^—- w_ ...ju-..*!? ^H^y '=^2^*'''^ — 
Fig. 165. Where shrubs are needed. After Waugh, Landscape Gardening. 

(258) 



The Home Lot 



259 



comer, simple though it may be, yet we say, "It's a nice 
place." Ask us why, and the answer is a very uncertain 
one. Why? It's because we fail to recognize the essen- 
tials of a good picture. A good picture should suggest 
themes for pleasant, harmonious thought. "Believing, 
as we do, that the beauty and force of every true man's 
life or occupation depends largely on his pursuing it 
frankly, honestly, openly, with all the individuality of 
his character, we would have his house and home help 
to give significance to, and dignify that daily life and 
occupation by harmonizing with them." 

370. Studying Landscapes. Compare Fig. 165 with 
Fig. 166. Manifestly, one is more pleasing to the eye 
than the other, but why? Some shrubs have been added, 
it is true, but it is not the shrubs in themselves that are 
so noticeably pleasing. The shrubs cover up many of 
the harsh geometrical lines and make the landscape look 




Fig. 166. Where shrubs are added. Compare with Fig. 165. 



260 



Eletnentary Principles of Agriculture 




more natural. Had the shrubs been placed in the open 
space the effect would not have been half so pleasing. 
The large open lawn gives an attractive setting for the 
trees farther on. A comparison of these two pictures 
teaches us the A, B, C of landscape art. In making 

pictures on the land- 
scape, whether around 
the home, church- 
yard, cemetery or 
the school house, we 
should 

(A) Strive to 
avoid sharp, straight 
lines; 

(B) Preserve 
broad, open spaces ; 
(Figs. 167, 168). 

(C) Plant in 
masses, and look to nature for instructive examples in 
arranging shrubs and trees. 

371. Rural Home Grounds should have such group- 
ings of lofty trees and attractive shrubs that the sharp 
lines of houses, barns and fences shall be softened into 
a natural picture. The appearance of the home lot 
should suggest more than mere shelter for man and his 
useful animals. It should appear as though the house, 
barns and lots were built in what was naturally an at- 
tractive landscape. Open lawns and large trees are 
always pleasing. In the crowded city such features 
may, from necessity, be dispensed with, but, when the 
country house is set in a small yard, it impresses us 
immediately as showing too great a contrast with the 
natural openness that is so characteristic of rural life. 



Fig. 167. A plan that brings the plants 
into prominence. 



The Home Lot 



261 




372. Planning a Home Lot is a matter requiring 
much study. Along with the study of the view of the 
home site from within and without, we must cautiously 
plan for all the conveniences for the living of both man 
and beast. The location of the house, the barns, poultry 
houses, roads, gar- 
dens, orchards and 
fences should first be 
studied from the 
standpoint of conven- 
ience and healthful- 
ness. When these 
features are planned, 
then we may study 
how to complete the 
picture and introduce 
those features that 
make a residence 
"home-hke," 

373. Completing the Picture. In placing the trees, 
shrubs and flower-beds, we should consider first the 
outlook from the house, — the view that we will see most 
often. Next we may consider the view from the highway. 
In both cases the openness of view should be preserved. 
In planting the trees and shrubs we are using them 
only as materials. They may make or mar the view, 
according to the way we arrange them. (Fig. 169.) 

374. Locating the Plants. In making a plan, the 
grouping of the plants should be carefully worked out. 
For every plant to be used, we must know how it will 
look, and how much space is required when fully mature. 
After a satisfactory knowledge of the plants has been 
gained, we may mark the place for each on our plan 



Fig. 168. A plan that makes a good picture, 
whether viewed from the house or the 
highway. 



1 




Fig. 169. A good plan for the arrangement and decoration of a farm-house, 
buildings and grounds. Make a list of the trees and shmbs of your local- 
ity that would be suitable for the above. 



The Home Lot 263 

(Fig. 1G9). The way the plants are grouped makes a 
great difference in the appearance of the place. Every 
attractive picture has some one central object. In mak- 
ing a picture on the landscape, the home, or the school- 
house is to be made the central feature. As a picture 
is often marred by a poor frame, so may a landscape 
lose its attractiveness by improper use of plants. 

375. Plants to Use. Landscape architects are also gar- 
deners in that they must know the character of many 
kinds of plants and the conditions under which they 
succeed. In selecting trees and shrubs for home plant- 
ing, it is important that sorts be used that succeed. 
Native wild plants should always be considered. Often 
much time, labor and money are wasted in trying to grow 
foreign plants unsuited to the climate or soil. Many 
native or wild plants give splendid results when planted 
in well-prepared ground. By observing the plants that 
are grown on other persons' grounds, we may often learn 
of the good sorts and avoid undesirable varieties. In 
selecting the plants, it is always advisable to consult 
the local nurseryman. 

375a. Make a list, using the names given in the nursery cata»- 
logues, of all the different kinds of trees, shrubs, perennial and 
annual flowers that grow well in your locality. Mention the location 
in the community of one or more plants of each sort. Do not for- 
get to consider the native plants. 



CHAPTER XXXV 
SCHOOL GARDENS 

376. The School is a place where many of our ideas 
and ideals are formed. It should be more than a place 
where we take short cuts to knowledge, that is, learning 
from teachers and books what others have found out 
by observation and investigation. Nature does not 
teach by words, pages or chapters. To understand 
nature's forces and how to control them, for our 
benefit, we must get close to her creatures. 

377. The School Garden should be a place to learn 
what is true, beautiful and useful about plants, insects, 
soils, birds, sunshine and rain. We may do this by 
working with nature, by growing a small number of sev- 
eral kinds of plants and observing their needs as they 
grow from seed to fruitage. In outward appearance, 
school gardens do not differ from home gardens. All 
the common sorts of plants may be grown in a school 
garden, though we observe and study them more closely. 
Some plants must be cultivated one way, while others 
require different care. In a school garden we seek the 
explanation of the differences. If we grow a small 
number of plants and observe the progress of each 
separate plant, we shall learn a great deal about how to 
care for a large crop. (See Frontispiece.) 

378. Laying Out a School Garden. When a piece of 
ground has been secured it should be cut up into a 
number of small gardens — one for each student. A 

(264) 















^ 



»■'«: 



^'*i;?.,^^r^'l 






R- 



^■ 



'%*..: 



■' ■* 




26G Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

diagram should be made showing all the walks and the 
location of each student's plot. Space should be left 
for walks between the gardens sufficient to allow access 
on all sides. The main walks may be five to eight feet 
wide, and the smaller walks only eighteen inches wide. 
A larger plot should be left for growing corn, pumpkins 
and other plants too large for the individual gardens. 
All students should take part in caring for the large plot. 
The laying out of the entire garden, and all questions 
about how it should be managed should be fully discussed 
by all students. Each student should make a plan and 
submit it to the teacher, who will select the best. 

379. Individual Gardens. Every student — boy and 
girl^should have a small plot of ground on which they 
will begin work in the fall at the opening of school. 

Each student should make a plan for his or her 
garden, covering the preparation of the ground, selecting 
the kinds of plants or seeds to be grown, and all other 
important features. If the teacher approves the plan, 
the work may be begun. If any changes are desired, the 
consent of the teacher should be secured before carrying 
them out. The students remain responsible for the 
success and appearance of their plots. Some gardens 
will be so fine that they will show the importance of 
care. No student should allow his or her garden to be 
pointed out as an example of what neglect will do. 

380. Selecting Plants. In selecting plants for the 
garden, preference should be given to kinds that will 
mature during the school term. Some hardy sorts may 
be planted in the fall. 

Many plants mature so quickly that two or more 
crops may be grown on the same land. The plan for 
the garden should show how and when the land will be 



School Garden 



267 



prepared, where each kind of plant will be in the garden, 
how and when each kind will be planted. Each student 
should strive to do well. Figs. 170 and 171. 

381. The School Grounds should be made attractive 
by planting trees, shrubs, flowers and vines. Just as 
every one takes pride in the appearance of the home lot, 
so does the community feel a pride in keeping the school 
groimds in order. The school grounds should be kept in 
order by the pupils even during vacation. 





Dwarf Nasturtium 


u 
o 


Radish 


a 

E 

o 


Radish 


-3 


Radish 




Lettuce 


^ i 


Lettuce 


t; 


Beans 


c 

O 


Beans 


c 
a 


Beets 


-t3 


Beets 


V 


Beans 


-i 


Turnips 


a 

a 
p 


White Oats 


Red Oats 




Barley 


Wheat 



Fig. 170. Plan of a garden with 
vegetable and field crops 



■°< 



Petunia 



Petunia 



Zinnia 



Zinnia 



Ageratum 



Nasturtium 



Radish 



Radish 



Lettuce 



Lettuce 



Beets 



Beets 



Beans 



Beans 



Poppies 



Shirley Popp es 
Plant in Fall 



Fig. 



171. Plan of a garden with 
flowers and vegetables 



CHAPTER XXXVI 
FORESTRY 

382. A Forest is a considerable piece of land covered 
with large trees. Forests are directly important to 
mankind as sources of fuel, lumber, heavy round timber, 
such as posts, piling, and telegraph poles; also, cooper- 
age stock, tan bark, wood pulp for paper-making, rosin, 
cork and many other useful supplies. They are also 
important because of their good effect in regulating 
stream flow, preventing the erosion of the land and, 
probably, in modifying climate. 

383. The Need of Forests was not fully recognized 
by the early settlers in timbered regions. The heavy 
timber was looked upon as an obstacle to rapid progress; 
but, in recent years, when railroads are at hand to haul 
the forest products wherever they may be needed, they 
are quite valuable. Before a piece of timbered land is 
destroyed, the probable value of the annual harvest of 
forest products should be carefully considered. America 
is now repeating the forestry experiences of European 
countries. The forests were first destroyed to make 
room for the fields, gardens and orchards, and, as the . 
farming interest reduced the timbered areas, fuel and 
lumber supplies became more difficult to secure. Then 
the forest was looked upon as something of value that 
should not be destroyed. Where the natural covering of 
the hills and bottoms has been removed, the bad effects 
caused by the washing of the soil from the hills and the 
flooding of the valleys have been plainly seen. 

(268) 



Forestry 269 

384. Systematic Forestry teaches us to remove only 
the matured products, leaving the young timber to 
grow. France and many European countries have had 
to restore, though at great expense, the forest condi- 
tions to large areas that had been thoughtlessly destroyed. 
In many of the Old World countries no man is allowed 
to destroy a mature forest tree without permission of a 
forest official, and this is often given only when another 
is started to take its place. Such restrictions seem 
needlessly severe to us, but is it improbable that, some 
day, we may find some such restriction necessary for 
the public good? 

385. The Exhaustion of Our Forest Resources is now 
going on at a rapid rate. Our forested areas are being 
rapidly reduced. Fig. 172 illustrates the present differ- 
ence between the use of for- 
est products and the rate of 
increase by growth. The east- 
ern states have long since 
all but exhausted their na- 
tural forests. They once 
secured the needed supplies 
of lumber from the virgin 
forests of the north central 
states, but today those areas 
are almost exhausted and pig. 172. Excess o7annuai cut 

the large lumber supplies over annual forest growth. 

are now furnished by the northwestern and southern 
states. The citizens of many states have heretofore 
referred with pride to the great value of their annual crop 
of forest products; but the time has come in many states 
where the crop removed is greater than the crop that 
grows. Scientific forestry does not mean that the use of 




270 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

forests should cease; but, rather, that in their use the 
needs of the future shall be considered in their relation 
to man and his various industries. 

386. Conserving Our Forest Resources is a national 
need. In former times the lumberman cut everything. 
The young timber was needlessly destroyed. Now, 
however, they have realized the value of the small 
seedlings and saplings, and seek to protect them from 
forest fires and the grazing of stock. All the conditions 
that favor the growth of the young trees are carefully 
considered by the modern forester. 

387. Our Forest Reserves. Our government, observ- 
ing the great hardships resulting from an insufficient 
supply of forest products in the Old World, and how 
quickly the forests of the East and middle states have 
been reduced, has set aside large tracts of timbered 
regions in the western states as National Forest Reserves. 
These reserves form but a small part of our present 
forest resources; but, taken with the privately owned 
forests, are sufficient to supply our needs if properly 
used. Forestry plantings have been maintained in older 
countries for long periods and experience has shown 
that such plantings yield an annual revenue equal to 
four to eight dollars per acre. 

388. The Forest Service of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, and the Forestry Commissioners 
provided for in .many states, study the problems of 
forest management and issue bulletins of information 
for the instruction of all who have land suitable for 
timber-growing. 

389. The Farm Wood-Lot. In many sections the 
waste lowland and the hill land may be planted to trees 
to supply fuel, poles and the many special timbers 



Forestry 



271 



needed on every farm. In many cases such lands have 
been made to return to the farm products equal in value 
to the returns of the regular field crops. The value of a 
wood-lot will depend much upon the care, nature of the 
soil, and the kinds of trees planted. Of course, it takes 
some years before the first harvest can be made; but 
this may be greatly shortened by planting thick and 




Fig. 173. A catalpa plantation. Every farm slionld liave a wooil-lot. 
From Year Book, United States Department of Agriculture, 1899. 



272 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

cutting out the less desirable forms as the growth 
thickens. Varieties for wood-lot planting should be 
selected to suit the locality. Hardy, catalpa, black 
locust, black walnut, honey locust, Bois d'Arc, or 
Osage orange, mulberries, and many other sorts, have 
proven to be well suited to many sections of the South 
and West. Not every wood-lot has turned out a success; 
but a larger number have. Many failures are due to neg- 
lect or to the use of species unsuited to the conditions. 
389a. A farmer planted a large acreage of bottom land to hardy 
catalpas, in rows six feet apart and four feet apart in the row. At 
the end of ten years he found the books showed the following items: 
Cost of rent on land for ten years, seedlings, planting, cultivating, 
trimming, marketing, etc., $56. Value of stakes and small posts 
secured, early thinning, $63. Stock on hand: 678 posts, first class, 
10 cents each; 712 posts, second class, 7 cents each; 616 posts, 
third class, 4 cents each. What was the approximate value per 
acre per year of the crop? 

390. Windbreaks. In open regions, windbreaks, 
formed by growing shrubs and trees, have been found to 
be quite beneficial because of the protection they give 
to growing crops and orchards, or to stock. Windbreaks 
reduce the evaporation from the soil and from the 
plants themselves. They often prevent the drifting of 
the soil in open, sandy regions. They also protect stock 
from cold winds in winter and hot winds in summer. In 
regions that most need windbreaks, it is most difficult to 
get the trees to grow. The plan that has proven most 
satisfactory is to make plantings of arborvitae, locusts, 
Osage orange, red cedar, blackberries, green ash, or other 
species in wide rows and cultivate the trees until they 
become thoroughly established. It is not advisable how- 
ever, to use cedars in windbreaks for apple orchards, 
because they aid in the spread of the apple rust. 



CHAPTER XXXVII 
FARM MACHINERY 

By PROF. J. B. DAVIDSON, Professor of Agricultural Engineering, 
Iowa State College 

391. Progress in Agriculture owes much to the intro- 
duction of machine methods for doing hand labor. When 
the savage began to plant seeds with a sharp stick in- 
stead of depending on wild nature, the idea was certainly 
a progressive one. When he learned that destroying the 
weeds that came up with those seeds would add to tha 
quantity and the certainty of the harvest, he ceased to 
be a savage. Still again, when he learned to prepare 
the ground and cultivate his crops, civilization was 
well established. "Civilization begins and ends with the 
plow," and yet the plow remained a crude wooden tool 
until within comparatively recent times. 

392. Tillage Tools were not noticeably improved 
until chemists and botanists began to study the soil and 
formed a theory about the relation of the soil to the 
plant. Machines are not invented until the need for 
them is recognized. The ideas about the relation of the 
plant to the soil given in modern books would have 
been wondrous strange to our great - grandparents. 
McMaster* tells us that "The Massachusetts farmer 
who witnessed the Revolution, plowed his land with a 
wooden bull-plow, sowed his grain broadcast, and, when 
it was ripe, cut it with a scythe and thrashed it out on 
his barn floor with a flail." These implements were 

♦History of the People of the United States 
R (273) 



274 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

similar to the ones used by the Egyptians three thou- 
sand years before. It is worthy of note that many of 
the greatest of the early Americans were interested in 
the development of the plow, the fundamental imple- 
ment of tillage. Thomas Jefferson and Daniel Webster 
planned plows and had them constructed, which were 
improvements over preceding types. In 1797, Charles 
Newbold introduced the iron plow, but it is recorded 
that the farmers of that time refused to use it, claiming 
that so much iron drawn through the soil poisoned the 




Fig. 174. Daniel Wphster'3 famous plow had a beam 9 feet long. 

land and increased the growth of weeds. This latter 
superstition delayed the general acceptance of improved 
plows for many years. The use of iron and steel plows 
did not become general until about 1S30. Many im- 
provements were made in the construction and form of 
the points and mold-boards, adapting them to various 
kinds of soils. The modern plow is familiar to all. The 
recent types of sulky plows enable the plowman to 
ride in a comfortable seat, and, when properly ad- 
justed, so that the pressure due to the raising and turn- 
ing of the furrow slice is reduced, have no heavier draft 
than the walking plow. The single-shovel cultivator has 
given way to the double-shovel implement, and this, in 
turn, to the straddle-row cultivator, and, in many sec- 
tions, the two- and three-row cultivators are finding 
favor. 



Farm Machinery 



275 



393. Harvesting Machinery. Perhaps no line of 
development has assisted agriculture so much as machine 
harvesting. The grass hook and the scythe were long 
in use. When a Scotchman put fingers to the scythe, 
forming the cradle, it was heralded as a great invention 
because it enabled one man to do the work of several 
equipped with the older implements. Obed Hussey 
and Cyrus H. McCormick* 
stand out prominently in the 
development of the reaper, 
which was later improved by 
many others, among whom 
Palmer, Williams, Marsh 
Brothers, Spaulding and Ap- 
pleby should be mentioned, 
leading up to the self-binder 
in 1878. It appears marvel- 
ous to find that there has 
taken place within sixty 
years — within the life of a 
single man — the universal in- 
troduction of machines which 
are so efficient and still require the guidance of but 
one man to do the work of many. 

394. Farm Machinery. The general introduction of 
specialized farm machines, — implements too complex 

*Cyrus H. McCormick was bom in Rockbridge county, Virginia, in 1809. 
His father had constructed a reaping machine, thougli his efforts, like those 
of many others along the same line, were not successful. Young Cyrus had 
watched his father's experiments and cherished the thought that some day he 
might solve the difficult problem. He abandoned the principles that had 
formed the underlying features of his father's machine. The elder McCormick 
did not approve of the young man's plans, but he put no obstacles in his way, 
and offered him the facilities of his little blacksmith shop to build his first 
machine. Young McCormick completed his first reaper in time to give it a 
trial in the harvest of 1831, and it worked successfully that year. 




175. C. H. McCormick. 



276 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



to be called tools, — has made the modern farmer a 
mechanic. Modern haying implements, consisting of 
mowers, rakes, hay-loaders, stackers and presses, have 
greatly reduced the hand work in hay-making. It has 
■been estimated that the farmer of 1850 spent eleven 
hours in cutting and storing a ton of hay, while, under 
modern methods, the time has been reduced to one hour 
and thirty-nine minutes. There are machines for every 




Fig. 176. McCormick reaping machine, 1834. 

class of farm work : Threshing-machines for threshing 
grain; shellers, for shelling corn from the cob; buskers 
and shredders, for removing the ears from the corn- 
stalk and converting the latter into palatable food for 
farm animals, and many others. This is true to such an 
extent that large farms have nearly as much invested 
in machinery as some factories. Many forms of machinery 
used on the farm require considerable power. Wind- 
mills, gasoline engines, and even steam-engines, are not 



Farm Machinery 



277 



infrequently in regular use for pumping water, grinding 
grain, separating milk and other special operations. 
These motors increase the capacity of the farm worker 
by enabling him to use and direct more power, resulting 
in more economical production. Fig. 177. 

395. Power Versus Hand Labor. The change from 
hand tools to implements and special machinery has 
lead to the use of more power for each worker, and the 




Fig. 177. A suggestion for the use of power on tlie farm. From an 
agricultural implement catalogue. 

amount is governed somewhat by the ability of the 
worker. Man, when working alone, is able to develop 
only about one-eighth horse-power. When he uses, one 
horse, his capacity to work is increased eightfold, and 
if two horses are used, sixteenfold. The American farmer 
is not content to let his brain drive a one-horse power 
when two, three or four may be used to advantage. 
This demand for more power has stimulated the breed- 
ing of larger horses for draft purposes. 

396. Care of Machinery. The operation of many 



278 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

forms of farm machinery often taxes the mechanical 
skill of the average worker. Much loss results from the 
neglect to repair agricultural machines promptly and 
systematically. Many machines are discarded which 
would be almost as good as new if the broken parts 
were replaced. Costly agricultural machines should be 
kept under shelter when not in actual use, to lengthen 
their period of usefulness. 

397. The Influence of Agricultural Machinery on the 
quantity and quality of farm productions has brought 
many changes. The year 1850 has been mentioned as 
marking the transition from the use of implements for 
hand-production to those for machine-production. The 
increase in production per farm worker under modern 
methods is most marked. The Roman farmer in the 
time of Columella spent four and six-tenths days in 
growing a bushel of wheat. It is stated in the Thirteenth 
Annual Report of the United States Department of 
Labor that the American farmer spent three hours in 
1830, under hand methods, in producing a bushel of 
wheat, at a cost of 17.7 cents, while now the same result 
is secured in nine minutes at a cost of 3.5 cents. In 1800, 
97 per cent of our people were living on farms, or in 
small towns, depending upon agriculture for food; 
yet, with all this army of workers, the country raised 
only. five and five-tenths bushels of wheat per person. 
In 1900, while approximately only one-third of the 
population lived on farms, the production of wheat 
was ten bushels per capita, one-half of which was in 
excess of our needs. 

398. Other Changes in Farm Conditions have been 
made, at least in part, as a result of the change from 
hand methods to machine methods of production. An 



Farm Machinery 



279 



old method of threshing grain was by the treading of 
animals, but bread made from wheat threshed in this 
manner would not be salable today. Women are no 
longer required to do heavy field work as they did at 
one time. The working day has fewer hours and the 
wages of the farm-worker has increased many fold. 
"All intelligent expert observation," says Dodge, 
"declares it beneficial. It has relieved the laborer of 
much drudgery; made his work lighter and his hours of 
service shorter; stimulated his mental faculties; given 
equilibrium of effort to mind and body; made the laborer 
a more efficient worker, a broader man and a better 
citizen." 




a a.|. 



pilea leady for shocking. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 
PUBLIC HIGHWAYS* 

399. National Roads. In 1806, Congress authorized 
the construction of a national turnpike, from Cumber- 
land, Md., to St. Louis, Mo., and continued to make 
appropriations until 1838. This road still exists and many- 
sections of it are now in good condition. Most of the 
national appropriations for public roads were primarily 
for military roads, but the federal government has made 
no appropriations for road building since the beginning of 
the Civil war. Since 1892, Congress has provided for the 
"Office of PubUc Road Enquiry," for the purpose of exper- 
imenting on problems in road construction and studying 
the prol^lems of road administration and maintenance. 

400. Building and Maintaining Public Highways. 
Most of the states still have their roads in charge of 
county officers or other persons who, while generally 
competent in ordinary business undertakings, are not 
students of the technical problems of road construction 
or maintenance. In nearly every foreign country, road 
building and road maintenance is in charge of expert 
road engineers. In recent years, several states have 
established the office of "State Highway Commissioner," 
and provided for the state, county and precinct to share 
the expense of preparing or building roads. This is 
known as the "state-aid plan." 

401. The Need of Public Highways. Good highways 

* Acknowledgments are due Mr. T. W. Larkin for generous assistance in the 
preparation of this chapter. 

(280) 



Public Highways 281 

ought to be maintained by and for all the people. They 
make travel to and between cities, towns, neighbor- 
hoods, schools and churches easy, quick and economical. 
They not only save valuable time, reduce the cost and 
increase the comforts of overland travel, but the schools 
and churches are more accessible, — hence more useful 
and effective. The improvement of public highways 
has for years been strongly advocated by the brightest 
minds of the country, and these advocates, after point- 
ing out the importance of such improvement to the 
material advancement of the agricultural and commercial 
interests, dwell upon the benefits to the social fabric, 
which means so much to public progress. It is urged 
that improved roads greatly lessen the cost of trans- 
porting the products of the farm to the market, thus 
increasing the earning capacity of the producer and like- 
wise increasing the value of the lands having access to 
such roads. It has been said that wherever the best 
roads are found there are also found the best homes and 
the greatest perfection of living conditions on the farm. 
Good roads are very essential to the greatest degree of 
comfort in rural living. Good roads make possible the 
profitable employment of teams at times when field 
work cannot be done, thus reducing the amount of idle 
time, and enable the marketing of produce when market 
conditions are most favorable. It is also notable that, 
in communities where the highways have been improved, 
social conditions are improved by reason of the ease 
of neighborhood visits and attendance upon social 
events. 

402. When Shall Public Roads Be Built. Good com- 
mon highways do not exist naturally. They must be 
made and kept in repair. If the expense of hauling the 



282 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



products of the farms and mills back and forth is greater 
on bad roads than on good roads, we might designate 
this difference as the "bad-roads tax." If the bad-roads 
tax on a community is enough to build and maintain 
good roads, the wisdom of the building is at once appar- 
ent. Statistics compiled by students of the problem 
of public highways say that the heaviest road tax is 
paid by the farmer who is compelled to haul his prod- 
ucts over a neglected road. 




Fig. 179. If fifty tons of freight are hauled over such a road daily, what is the 
cost to the community for a year? 

402a. Problem. Farmer Jones has a farm of 160 acres, six miles 
from the railroad. He raises corn, cotton and oats as money crops. 
He has 40 acres in corn, averaging 40 bushels per acre — 1,600 
bushels — 115,200 pounds — 576 tons. His roads are such that in 
good weather he can haul one ton and make one trip a day. If a 
driver and team be valued at $2.50 per day, how much does it cost 
per ton to deliver his corn to market? How much per ton per mile? 
(41 cents) Would this latter figure be approximately true whether 



Public Highways 



28c 



the hauling trip wei-e two or six miles? How much would it cost to 
haul the 1,600 bushels to market? Figure cost per bushel; cost per 
acre; approximate tax on the entire farm. 

402b. Problem. The road traveled by Farmer Jones was graded, 
ditched anil drained, bridges put in at bad places, hills cut down to 
reduce the grade, and so improved that the same team could haul 
3,000 pounds and make two trips per day. Make similar calcula- 
tions as above. Determine the approximate "bad-roads tax" 
on Farmer Jones. 




Fig. 180. If fifty tons are hauled over such a road daily, what is the cost to 
the community for a year? — A demonstration road being built by Office of 
Road Inquiry, United States Department of Agriculture. 

403. Cost of Overland Transportation. In some 

investigations made by the United States Department 
of Agi'iculture, it was found that the average cost of 
hauUng twenty-three different farm products to market 
represented a sum equal to 1.4 per cent of the value 
for cotton, 2.7 per cent for wool, 4.3 per cent for peanuts, 
5.2 per cent for rice, 5.3 per cent for flax seed, 7.2 per 
cent for wheat, 7.7 per cent for oats, and 9.G for corn. 



284 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

The general average cost on all crops was found to be 
5.22 per cent of the value. 

The cost per ton per mile figured on actual loads and 
cost of hauling averaged 25 cents divided as follows: 
15 cents for flax seed; 16 cents for barley; 19 cents for 
wheat, rye, hops, hay and corn; 22 cents for wool and 
potatoes; 27 cents for cotton and cotton seed; 25 cents 
for apples and live hogs; 30 to 31 cents for peanuts and 
fresh vegetables. These figures were based on reports from 
all parts of the United States, and of course are merely 
averages for all sorts of roads. In some cases the cost 
was greater and in others less than the figures given. 

The difference in cost of hauling over good roads and 
poor roads is shown by the following figures of cost of 
hauling per ton per mile, based on European investi- 
gations: 

Per ton mile 
On broken stone roads, dry and in good con- 
dition 8.0 cents 

On broken stone roads, ordinary condition 11.9 cents 

On earth roads containing ruts and mud 39.0 cents 

On sandy roads when wet 32.6 cents 

On sandy roads when dry 64.0 cents 

404. Cost of Steam Transportation. The average 
freight rate by rail per ton mile for 1906 was .$0.00766 
per ton mile. Average cost by ocean freight New York 
to Liverpool, a distance of 3,100 miles, was in 1906 
$1,006 per ton on wheat, or $0.0003 per ton mile. The 
great significance of these figures is shown when com- 
pared with the following: 

'^ '^ Per ton mile 

Average rate on country roads 25 cents 

Average rate for corn on country roads 19 cents 

Average rate for corn on hard roads 10 cents 

405. How the Road Surface Affects the Draft. The 

firmness and smoothness of the road-bed affects the 
draft required to move a load very materially. The 



Public Highways 



285 



following figures based on actual tests will enable one 
to see at a glance the great value of good road-beds. 
If a horse has a load that he can just draw on a level 
road of iron rails, it would require the power of one and 
one-half horses to draw the same load on hard asphalt, 
three and one-half on smooth block pavement, seven 
on cobble-stone pavement, thirteen on bedded cobble 
stone, twenty on an ordinary earth road, and forty on 
a sandy road. 

The following table shows the results of tests made 
with an ordinary wagon equipped with an automatic 
scale or dynamometer, used to measure the traction, 
or pull, in pounds: 



Character of surface 


Wide tires, 4 inches 
Load weight, 4,345 lbs. 


Narrow tires, li inches 
Load weight, 4,235 lbs. 


Starting 
Lbs. 


.\verage pull 
Lbs. 


Starting 
Lbs- 


Aver, pull 
Lbs. 


On block pavement. . 

Hard sandy roads .... 

Good level grave! 

roads 


350 
700 

600 

800 

1,050 


100 
275 

175 
550 
550 

900-1,600 


300 
725 

650 
900 


75 

300 

175 


Soft muddy roads. . . . 

Deep muddy roads. . . 

On muddy dirt roads 
with ruts made by 
narrow tires. 


500 



Character of surface 


Wide tires, 3 inches 
Load weight, 4,590 lbs. 


Narrow tires, 1^ inches 
Load weight, 4,590 lbs. 


Starting 
Lbs. 


Average pull 
Lbs. 


Starting 
Lbs. 


Aver, pull 
Lbs. 


Across fields cutting 

sod H inches 

Good hard roads 

On pavement 


1,100 
700 


550 
350 
125 


1,250 
850 


650 
350 



286 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

Other results have shown that to draw a ton on hard, 
smooth macadam road required 45 pounds pull, on hard 
rolled gravel road 75 pounds, and on earth roads 224 
pounds. It will thus be seen that a good road-bed 
enables a horse to draw from two to five times as much 
on level roads as on rough roads. 

406. How the Grade Affects the Draft. In improving 
roads, it is very important that the steep hills be avoided 
by cutting down at top and filling in at bottom, or by 
putting in bridges. This work is often very expensive 
and, wherever possible in laying out a road, the expert 
engineer will throw his line along the side and around 
the end of steep hills, even though the distance be some- 
what greater, for the increased travel is more than offset 
by the increased hauling capacity. It is almost impossible 
to avoid a considerable grade in constructing a road 
over a hill. It often happens that a road may be thrown 
around a hill instead of over it, without increasing the 
distance to be traveled. This may be illustrated by 
cutting a well-formed apple in halves. With a tape-line 
find the exact center on the side and between the ends. 
Then measure the distance over the piece of apple and 
the distance around either end to the exact center of the 
opposite side, and it will often be found about the same. 

It has been found that when a horse can pull a 1,000- 
pound load on a level road he can draw only 900 pounds 
up a 1 per cent grade, 800 pounds up a 2 per cent grade, 
400 pounds up a 5 per cent grade, and only 250 pounds 
up a 10 per cent grade. It might be interesting to deter- 
mine the grade of some hills in the school district. A 
spirit-level and a tape-line will be needed. 

A horse may pull only one-fourth as much on a 10 
per cent grade as might be pulled on a level road. How- 



Public Highways 287 

ever, a horse may exert twice his average pulling strength 
for a few minutes. In the case of a very long hill, it might 
in some cases be better to make a number of steeper 
but shorter pulls than to make one long gradual pull. 
Thus we see that grades greatly decrease the hauling 
capacity, and, inasmuch as whatever decreases the 
hauling capacity correspondingly decreases earning 
capacity, the importance of reducing grades in road 
improvement is easily understood. 

407. Effect of Width of Tire on Draft. It is important 
to know the effect of the width of the tire on the amount 
of draft required to move a load. The results given in 
the table (^ 405) are fairly representative. These results 
and many others indicate that there is no advantage in 
wide tires on pavements and very hard roads, but for 
ordinary country hauling the wide tire offers several ad- 
vantages. Narrow tires are very destructive to road sur- 
faces, but wide tires roll and harden th-e surface like a roller. 

408. Good Road Essentials. A road should have a 
smooth, hard surface and a reasonably level grade, and 
it should have such a foundation that it will maintain 
its smooth surface in dry as well as wet weather, that is, 
its essential qualities should be permanent. In building 
roads, therefore, they should be given such form and con- 
struction as will maintain these qualities under constant 
use in varying weather conditions. Drainage is the all- 
important problem encountered by the road engineer. 
The road must be so laid out and constructed as to shed 
water as quickly as possible, to prevent damage, to sur- 
face and foundation*. (Fig. 181.) The surface of the road- 
bed should be slightly elevated in the middle, so that 
the rain-water will run immediately to the side ditches 
before it has time to penetrate into the foundation. 



288 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



Not only this, but side drains should be large enough 
to carry off all water without washing, and graded to 
prevent the formation of pools on the sides. The water- 
table should be kept well below the surface of the road. 




Fig. 181. Cross sections of two good forms for eartli roads. The lower section 
can be made with a road machine, and both sections can be maintained 
with a split-log drag so that water will run oS easily and quickly. 




Fig. 182. Cross section of a road showing the result of improper construction 
and drainage. Note that tlie center of the road has become the lowest part 
and that water may collect on the surface, making the road practically 
impassable. 



Fig. 183. Cross section of road, showing clay cover on "deep" sand subsoil 




Fig. 18-1. Cross section of Macadam road, showing a compact foundation of 
earth supporting; a solid and durable stone surface. 




Fig. 185. Transverse section of Telford road with Macadam surface. 

Suitable culverts should be provided to dispose of storm 
water. These should have sufficient fall from the upper 
to the lower side to wash out all sediment. 

409. Surfaced Roads. Different kinds of material are 
used in surfacino; roads. In sections where suitable gravel 



Public Highways 289 

is found, some splendid roads are found surfaced with this 
material. In communities near the coast, shells have 
been used for road surfacing with good effect. But prob- 
ably the most popular and generally employed material 
is broken stone. Roads thus surfaced are said to be 
macadamized, l:)eing so called for the reason that John 
Loudon Macadam, a Scotch engineer, was the first to 
advocate and employ this plan of road building. The 
old Roman roads, which figure in history, were surfaced 
with stone, in some instances the stone surface being 
several feet thick; but Macadam worked upon the 
theory that a smaller amount of stone properly consoli- 
dated would serve the same purpose with less expense. 
Time proved his theory correct, and Macadam is quoted 
in almost every work on road construction. Another 
Scottish engineer who advanced many splendid ideas in 
road building and also won fame as a road builder during 
the days of Macadam, was Thomas Telford. The Telford 
roads are built with the lower layer of broad, fiat stones 
set on edge by hand. This is considered by many road 
builders to be a useless expense except when the foun- 
dation is soft. In the Mississippi delta, where the 
roads are over sedimentary clays, commonly known as 
"gumbe," or "buckshot," the burnt-clay method of 
surfacing has been successful. 

410. Earth Roads. The building of modern high- 
ways is being urged throughout the country as their 
importance becomes realized, especially with the increase 
of overland traffic and the ever-increasing demand for 
better transportation facilities from the farm to market, 
and growing tendencies toward better living conditions 
in the rural districts. For many years to come," the 
earth road mileage will probably be by far greater than 
that of surfaced road; hence the care of earth roads 



290 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

presents a problem that should engage the thought 
of every one. Wherever it is not possible or practicable 
to pave or surface the roads, they should as least be 
properly graded, and so laid out as to reduce grades to 




Fig. 186. A split-log drag 

the minimum and provide the best possible drainage, 
A well-drained road will not cut into deep ruts, which 
are so annoying on neglected earth roads. 

411. The Split-log Drag. The split-log drag is a 
simple device that can be used effectively for the im- 
mediate betterment of earth roads. It has been enthu- 
siastically advocated throughout the country during 
the past few years and many of them are being effectively 
used. The drag is usually made and operated by progres- 
sive farmers, who after each rain, if the conditions of the 
road requires it, drag the road from their own gate to the 
gate of the neighbor, who is expected to do likewise. 
Wherever this plan has become well established, the roads 
have been greatly improved. The drag is most effective if 
used when the ground is just beginning to dry; that is, 
moist but not sticky or puddle. The drag is so simple in 
construction and operation that any school-boy can do 
it all with ease. 



Public Highways 



291 



The most important part of road dragging is using 
the road drag promptly and persistently. Drive up 
one side of the road and back on the other, covering 
one rut in each case. By riding on the outer or ditch 
end of the drag the loose dirt picked up near the ditch 
line will be gently moved along by the drag, filling ruts 
and holes and leaving the surplus in the center of the 
road to be travel-packed, thus gradually giving the road 
oval formation. 

The driver will soon learn that by moving about on 
the drag a greater or less amount of dirt can be moved, 
and that it can be dumped as desired. There is a ridge 
for every rut in the road; the drag cuts down the ridges 
and fills the ruts, thus preventing water from standing 
in these holes and soaking into the roadway. Keep the 
ditches clear, keep the roadway smoothed down with 
the drag so that the water may move quickly, and any 
earth road can be made good for travel at all seasons. 




Fig. 187. A split-log iitii'j., pioperly used, means a smooth, serviceable earth 
road free from ruts, mud holes and weeds. Also a reduction of mud in 
wet weather and dust in drv weather, — all at small cost. From photo 
specially furnished by Office of PubUc Road Investigations, Umted States 
Department of Agriculture. 



CHAPTER XXXIX 
SELECTION OF FARM CROPS 

412. Now that we have learned something of the gen- 
eral principles of plant growth, we may more profitably 
study the special requirements and uses of the most 
important field, orchard and garden crops. We have 
learned something about how plants grow. The Average 
yields of staple crops in all countries is much below the 
possible yields. Often only a fence separates a field 
averaging only 20 bushels of corn to the acre from one 
averaging 40 bushels. This average yield of corn in the 
United States is less than 25 bushels per acre, yet most 
farmers recognize that it is within their power to make 
their yields exceed this average. 

413. The Four Essentials. We have learned that all 
green plants require four important conditions for full 
success; i.e., sun light, air, constant supply of water, and 
certain mineral substances found in the soil. The control 
of the last two constitute the foundation of cultivation 
and is the first problem in successful crop raising. Culti- 
■C-ation includes more than simply plowing the soil. It 
is making a favorable environment by any means. The 
difference between the 20 and the 40 bushel crop can be 
accounted for largely by the way these conditions are 
controlled. 

414. The Second Most Important Problem of the 
farmer is to learn to select seed from the better producing 
plants, from which to grow succeeding crops. It is clear 
that we would profit by a better seed, but it is often a 

(292) 




C J3 



.s s 






iSelection of Farm Crops 



293 



task for our intelligence to determine which, out of a 
dozen or more plants, will furnish seed that will produce 
a better crop. If a special variety has better quality in 
its fruit, fiber, or stalk, or makes larger yields than others, 
it is usually because someone has recognized these qualities 
and perpetuated them by constant selection. (^ 204). 

415. Selection of Crops to Suit Climate and Soil. 
It has been found that climatic influences, such as air 
moisture, soil moisture, rainfall, temperature, and winds, 
are very important conditions determining what crops 
are profitable or even what varieties of a particular crop 
are most successful in certain sections. On going into a 
new section of country, it will usually be, best to follow 
the practice of the older residents and to experiment 
with introduced forms only on a small scale, until their 
adaptability can be better determined. As a general 
rule, those varieties are best that have longest been 
grown and most carefully 
selected in the climatic 
region in Avhich they are to 




Fig. 188. Select varieties suited to the climate in which they are to grow. On 
left Dakota IMiite Corn in North Dakota; On right Ferguson's Yellow Dent 
Corn in Oklahoma. 



294 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

be used. (^ 213). The varieties of cultivated crops 
brought to the West from the East by the early pioneers, 
are seldom in use there at present. They have been re- 
placed by varieties that have been developed in the West. 
We have here an illustration of a general rule that has 
few exceptions. 

416. Mixed Farming. It is rarely advisable for a 
farm to grow j ust one kind of crop. For example, a large 
corn crop would require more labor to cultivate at one 
season than one man could supply, and later leave him 
without employment. Farmers, therefore, usually find 
it more profitable to grow several kinds of crops. Other 
reasons favoring mixed farming were given in chapter XV. 
Can you name them? (See ^ 146). 

417. Mixed Farming and Crop Failures. If a farm 
producing only one crop should be affected by adverse 
weather conditions, low market values, etc., the farmer's 
small returns for that season might seriously impair his 
working capital. If he has several kinds of crops ma- 
turing at different seasons of the year, it would be unusual 
if some of them should not make a fair return. Mixed 
farming, therefore, tends to average the hazards which 
farmers must take against unforeseen weather conditions, 
and tends to give stability to total annual revenues. 

418. The Size of the Farm will depend much upon the 
selection of crops to be produced. In a general way it is 
advisable to have the farm large enough to justify a 
reasonable investment in labor saving machinery, draft 
animals, and other conveniences that place a premium 
upon intelligence, rather than mere physical strength. 
(^ 394). Experience has sho^\^l that farms growing gen- 
eral field crops and stock yield a more profitable return 
when large enough to give employment to two or more 



Selection of Farm Crops 295 

men. There are many operations that can be more 
profitably performed by two or more persons than by one. 
The actual area of the farm will depend very much upon 
the requirements of the crops produced. For the com- 
mon field crops, one man may care for from 40 to 125 
acres, with only a moderate amount of extra labor at 
certain seasons. In vegetables or fruits a few acres may 
afford employment for a number of men. 

419. Intensive and Extensive Farming. By intensive 
farming we mean that extra efforts and outlay are made 
to increase the acre yields. Special efforts are made to 
have the environment correspond closely to the require- 
ments of the plants. Special preparation of the soil, 
irrigation, liberal use of fertilizers, frequent cultivation 
and specializing in just a few kinds of crops of high market 
values, are features of intensive farming. Examples 
are, onions, celery, and greenhouse plants. Crops where 
quality more than quantity determine the acre-values are 
usually more profitable when grown on an intensive basis. 
Bulky field crops of comparatively low value, while giving 
increased yields, do not usually make correspondingly 
profitable returns when grown on an intensive basis. 

The pastoral farming of the pioneers represented an 
extreme type of extensive farming. The other extreme 
is found in the market gardens, greenhouses, and orchards 
of the present day where a single acre may be made to 
produce several hundred, or even several thousand dollars* 
worth of products. 



CHAPTER XL 
PASTURE CROPS 

420. When crops are harvested by grazing animals 
they are called pasture crops. If cut green and fed in 
this condition, soiling crops (^ 346) but if allowed to dry 
and cure they are called hay crops. When harvested 
green, cut up and stored in silos it is called silage. (T[ 355). 

421. The Value of Pasture Crops is generally under- 
estimated because they are not converted directly into 
money. (^ 258). In the bluegrass region cattle get 
about half of their living on good pastures by grazing 
and it takes from 2 to 8 acres to furnish pasture feed for 
a three-year-old steer. Pastures are useful in ways which 
cannot be easily measured in a money equivalent. Work 
animals remain in much better condition if allowed to 
run in pastures. And again, dairy and other cattle that 
live out of doors upon pastures are healthier than when 
housed or closely penned. The best returns from pas- 
tures are secured in the dairy sections of England, the 
Jersey Islands, Holland, and Denmark, where more than 
half of the cultivatable lands are in permanent pastures. 
There a cow is kept on two or three acres, one-half of 
which is pasture. In some of these countries a large fami- 
ly will be prosperous on a 60 acre farm and pay a rental 
of seven or eight dollars per acre. 

422. Plants Suited to Pastures. In grazing, the upper 
parts of the stems and leaves are removed or tramped 
upon and disturbed by the animals. Good pasture plants 
have habits of growth such that they are not permanently 

(296) 



Pasture Crops 



297 



damaged by a limited amomit of this kind of treatment. 
The grasses are well siiit(>d to grazing because their stems 
and leaves grow in length largely from near their bases. 
They also have a habit of stooling or suckering, forming 
many stems, especially so if the older ones are grazed off. 
They form a turf out of the upper layer of soil that largely 
protects the roots from the tread of the grazing animals. 
Bluegrass, Bermuda grass, mesquit grass, and many 




Fig. 189. Plowing Hungarian Brome grass sod five years after seeding. 
Kansas Agricultural College. 



others on the western ranges have perennial roots, and 
form stooling, suckering stems, or rhizomes, and grow 
throughout the warm seasons. 

423. Valuable Pasture Plants in any country are few 
in number. The principal grasses are bluegrass in the 
North and Bermuda in the South. Besides these two, 
awTiless or Hungarian brome grass, timothy, redtop, and 
orchard grass are extensively used in the North; and 
redtop, Johnson, Guinea, Rhodes, rescue and Para grasses 
in some sections of the South. A good pasture grass 



298 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

should produce an abundance of good seed and in such a 
way that they may be easily harvested. Our best pasture 
grasses, however, do not meet these requirements, but 
we employ them because they produce an abundance of 
basal leafage from persistent rootstocks. 

424. To Keep a Stand on pastures composed of annual 
plants it is necessary to allow the plants to seed naturally, 
or to re-seed the land each year. For pastures composed 
of perennial plants that multiply by the growth of root- 
stocks, or rooting stems, it is necessary to allow sufficient 
growth to insure that food be stored to encourage the 
growth of these parts. Just the opposite procedure is 
followed in trying to starve out weeds. (^ 62). 

425. Management of Pastures. The amount of feed 
produced by pasture plants is determined by the same 
general conditions that control the growth of cultivated 
plants. For large returns they must have a rich soil, 
plenty of water, and develop large leaf surface. The 
tendency in pastures is for the surface of the soil to become 
hard, due to the trampling of stock and the binding effect 
of the roots. Harrowings and top dressings with manures 
are often very beneficial. We have previously learned 
that plant food is manufactured in the green leaves. 
The amount of leaf surface exposed to sunlight is a measure 
of the capacity of the plant to manufacture plant sub- 
stance. (See II 46-48; also 149 and 152). 

426. Close Grazing. Young pasture plants, or plants 
grazed closely through the winter should not be grazed 
when 'just coming out in the early spring. It greatly 
retards the rapidity of their later growth. Pastures that 
are grazed closely do not form vigorous plants and there- 
fore have weak roots and soft turf. Grass pastures hav- 
ing leaves four to six inches long will have more than treble 



Pasture Crops 



299 



the producing power of those with leaves only two or three 
inches long. It is more profitable to feed animals than 
to so overstock the pastures that their growth is retarded. 
A better practice is to divide single large pastures into two 
or more, and graze one at a time. 




Fig. 190. Pasture on left grazed so closely that the value of the crop is greatly 

reduced. Ou right not grazed enough to secure full advantage of the crop. 

Courtesy Dr. David Griffith, United States Department of Agriculture. 

427. Weeds in Pastures. Pasture lands are sometimes 
infested with weeds, — plants that stock will not eat. 
Annual weeds may often be destroyed or reduced by 
mowing while they are in flower, or before their seeds 
are ripe. Perennial weeds are more difficult to eradicate 
and the habits of each species must be studied. A few 
sheep and goats are often desirable in pastures because 
they prefer the leaves of weeds and bushes to the regular 
pasture plants, and thus turn the olDJectionable weeds into 
a profit while destroj'ing them. (^ 306). 



CHAPTER XLI 
LEGUMES 

BY PROF. A. D. McNAIR. U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

428. Importance of Legumes. We have already 
learned (^ 125) of the association of legumes and certain 
bacteria, that have the power of converting the free 
nitrogen of the atmosphere into compounds usable by 
their host plants. While the bacteria in the nodules on 
the roots in some way gather the free nitrogen of the air, 
yet it is not retained by them, but enriches the entire 
host plant (^ 124-130). For this reason they are called 
''nitrogen gatherers." When properly used, legumes are 
true soil builders. 

429. Formation of Tubercles and the Accumulation 
of Nitrogen. All species of legumes form tubercles on 
their roots, when the proper bacillus is present. In soils 
rich in soluble nitrates the number of tubercles is often 
small, while in soils deficient in nitrates, the number is 
usually greater. Legumes that have tubercles on their 
roots grow more vigorously and are richer in nitrogen 
than those that do not have tubercles. From this it is 
inferred that leguminous plants acquire the free nitrogen 
of the air when compelled to do so, but when the soil 
contains an abundance of nitrates, they utilize a larger 
proportion of the nitrogen salts in the soil. 

430. Soils and Fertilizers for Legumes. Alfalfa, the 
true clovers, beans, peanuts, and field peas are benefited 
by free lime and rarely thrive in acid soils. (See tests in 
^ 141). Cowpeas do not require so much free lime, and 
the same is probably true of soy beans and lespedeza. 

(300) 



Legumes 301 

Phosphorous, potash, wood ashes and manure are benefi- 
cial to legumes. Nitrogenous fertilizers are rarely ap- 
plied to soils cropped in legumes, though in planting them it 
is sometimes desirable to give a light dressing of some 
fertihzer containing nitrogen to give the young plants a 
good start. 

431. Clovers. Clover is a general term applied to a 
number of legumes. Red clover, and its more vigorous 
variet}^ mammoth clover, are largely grown in the United 
states north of a line from Oregon to Alabama. White 
clover is a hardy, spreading perennial used largely in 
pastures in regions north of the Cotton Belt, yet grows well 
on lowlands in humid regions in the South. O^^dng to its 
winter-growing habit, it is particularly desirable in com- 
bination with Bermuda grass in the South, to furnish an 
almost continuous pasture. Crimson clover is a winter 
annual not much used for hay, but highly esteemed in 
the South Atlantic States as a winter cover crop for or- 
chards and a soil renovating crop in rotations. The 
seed are sown in the fall and the crop plowed under in 
the spring in time to plant other crops. 

432. Alfalfa or Lucerne is not truly a clover, but it 
may be said to be the clover of the West, and in the mild 
climates of all countries where soils are suitable. It is 
well suited to both moist and dry climates, and responds 
freely to irrigation. It has deep growing roots and with- 
stands dry weather as well, or better than any other forage 
plant. (Fig. 191). Alfalfa needs a porous subsoil, not 
so much because of inability of the roots to penetrate 
stiff soils, but because an excess of water in the surface 
soil is highly injurious. 

433. Alfalfa is a perennial, forming a "crown," with 
many stems as it grows older and is mowed off. The 



302 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



seed are small and produce delicate seedlings which may 
easily be destroyed by dry weather, extreme cold, or 
weeds, though when once established, the plants are quite 
resistant to all. It is never advisable to attempt seeding 

alfalfa on foul land. Alfalfa 
seed retain their vitality for 
years. The seed bed should 
be mellow and well settled be- 
fore the seed are so\^^l. In 
most sections, sowing seed in 
late summer or early fall is 
preferred to spring seeding. It 
is usual to plant about 10 to 
20 pounds of seed per acre. 

434. Southern Clovers. 
There are two classes of clovers 
common in the humid regions 
of the South. Lespedeza or 
Japan clover is a summer grow- 
ing species, and is an import- 
ant hay crop in portions of 
Arkansas, Louisiana, and 
Mississippi, and for pasture 
in other sections. The Burr 
clovers are low winter grow- 
ing legumes originally from 
southern Europe, now widely 
naturalized in the South and in California. They are 
highly valued for grazing and as soil improving crops. 

435. Peanut. The peanut is a low-growing tropical 
annual requiring 100 to 150 days of warm weather to 
mature a crop. Sandy soils are preferable because the 
nuts are not stained as they are on heavy clay soils. 




Big. 191. Alfalfa plants showing 
crown of stems and deep feeding 
root. 
Kansas Agricultural College. 



Legumes 



303 



The Virginia variety is usually shelled by hand before 
planting, but the Spanish variety is often planted in the 
pod. The average yield is about 25 bushels of nuts and 
a ton of hay per acre. The old notion that the yellow 
flowers should be covered with earth is a mistake. After 
pollination takes place the showy yellow male flower fades 
away, while the small 
female flower grows 
doA\Tiward by the ex- 
tension of the flo.wer 
stem until the sharp 
pointed ''pegs" or 
ovaries are thrust into 
the ground where the 
pod develops. It is 
well to keep the soil 
quite mellow until the 
pegs or ovaries begin 
to reach the ground. 

436. Cowpeas, in 
Europe are more prop- 
erly called "China Beans," being in reality a bean and 
not a pea. They have long been recognized as being 
highly suitable for soil renovating crops, whether planted 
in the spring, or as catch crops on stubble land, or 
inter-planted with com or other crops. They are growTi 
more largely in the Southern States, but in recent years 
their use as a soil renovating crop in the Corn Belt 
States has greatly increased. The last named section, 
depends largely on the South to supply the seed for their 
plantings. 

437. Harvesting Legume Hay. Peavine hay is very 
nutritious, but requires some care in order to cure with- 




Fig. 192. Peanut Stacks stacked tor curing. One 
bare vertical stack pole shown in foreground. 
Courtesy of Prof. .A. D. McNair, United States 
Department of Agriculture. 



304 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



out moulding. It should be put in small shocks when 
well wilted, or stacked around small vertical poles, the 
hay resting on cross pieces nailed to the poles or be piled 
on skeleton pyramidal frames, where the air can penetrate 
and dry it. Peanuts are plowed out by means of a plow 
with the mold board removed or a potato digger, which 




Fig. 193. Alfalfa curing in shocks and in windrows. (Ohio) 

lifts them out of the ground. The plants are piled around 
vertical poles with the nuts on the inside. (Fig. 192). 
These may stand some weeks and then be stored loose, or 
threshed, and the vines baled. Lespedeza hay, alfalfa 
hay, and all those hays which are fine, or of medium 
fineness can be handled with modern hay-making ma- 
chinery. The coarse hays can seldom be handled in this 
way and therefore the labor and expense of harvesting 
is greater than for the fine hays. 



CHAPTER XLII 



CULTIVATED GRAINS 



438. Wheat, which was probably the cereal first culti- 
vated by the early civilization living in the countries bor- 
dering on the Red and the Mediterranean Seas, has spread 
throughout the world. Rice and wheat were the grains of 
the early Eastern civilization. Corn was the great food 
plant of the natives of Central and North America. Thus 
we see how it has happened that rice, wheat, and corn are 
the great grain crops of the world. 

439. The Word Corn was originally applied to any 
hard edible seed, grain, or kernel. In Biblical language, 
just as to-day to an Englishman, "ears of corn" means 
"heads of wheat." In Northern Europe "a cornfield" 
refers to a field of rye, and in Scotland, to oats. In other 
countries our corn is 

"Maize or Indian 
Corn," as it was first 
called by the early 
American explorers. 
In the same way 
"Kaffir Corn" and 
"Milo Maize," and 
other grain plants 
have been named by 
the Old World to 
distinguish them 
from their staple 
grain. 




Fig. 194. Corn cut to save stover. The shocks 
are placed wide apart to faciltate early seed- 
ing to wheat. 

Courtesy Prof. Hartley, United States 
Department of .4gricullure. 



(305) 



30G 



Elementary Princi'ples of Agriculture 




Fig. 195. Blooming of wheat flower. A to F opening and closing of flower; G, 
pistil, and K, pistil and anthers in positions at stage shown in A; // pistil at 
flowering stage; 7, shortly after flowering; J, portion of stigma showing germi- 
nating pollen grain; L, a single flower just after flowering; M, section of same. — 
After Hays. 

440. Pollination in Grains. In wheat, oats, barley, 
and most other grasses, the stamens and pistil are 
produced in the same flower. It has been found that the 
anthers shed their pollen and the stigmas become moist 
before the flower opens and are thus normally close 
fertihzed. (H 169). Prof. Hays found that wheat 
flowers open and close in the early morning hours, the 
operation consuming only 20 to 40 minutes. Study Fig. 
195. In corn, the tassel produces the pollen bearing flow- 
ers. The silks usually appear before the pollen is shed 
from the tassel above. As a result corn is normally cross 
fertihzed by pollen blown from nearby stalks. (See 
U 173). 

441. In Germination and in the formation of the roots, 
cereals show a peculiarity that is important to know when 
their seeds are to be planted. The first stages of germina- 
tion are as shown in Figs. 9 and 10. The shoot end grows 
up and forms a second whorl of coronal roots that are 
permanent, the seedling roots eventually dying. (Fig. 
196). The length of the first internode varies, according to 



Cultivated Grains 



307 



the (lei)th of covering. If the seeds are covered deeply, 
it will grow to within about one or two inches of the sur- 
face before forming the permanent roots. It will thus be 
seen that deep covering of grains does not make the plants 
deep rooted, and only seems to reduce their chances of 
success (^ 32). The root system of cereals is composed 
altogether of slender, much branched roots. There are 
no heavy tap roots as in alfalfa. (See Figs. 32 and 203). 

442. The Best Varieties of Cereals are strains that 
have been continuously and carefully selected and thus 
acclimated in the climatic belt in Avhicli they are to be 
groA\Ti. High yielding varieties of corn and wheat from 
moist climates usually give lower yields in dry climates 
than acclimated native sorts; corn and other grains from 
dry climates, however, will sometimes out-yield native 
strains in moist cli- 
mates, if the change 
is not too radical. In 
many sections of the 
South, seed com is 
purchased from the 
North, with the idea 
that it will give earlier 
maturity and therefore 
larger yields. It does 
give earlier maturity, 
but it has long been 
established that im- 
proved native varieties 
give more bushels of 

rrt-m f^aa T?i'fr 1 QC ^ ^'^- ^^0- Diagram of germinating com when 

torn. {Oee rig. l^h.) planted at different depths. 1, when planted 1 

Ad'i TmnrnT7-<amonf '"'"'' "^'^'""P- 2. planted 3 inches deep; 3, planted 

•±^0. imprOVemeni .5 inches deep; r, seedling roots: a. permanent 

nf Vfln'pti^ic TMonrKr roots; and 6. first internode the length of which 

vx vcuic^lica. INCctllJ is determined by depth of covering of seed. 




308 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



all the valuable varieties that have been introduced, have 
resulted from the careful multiplication of seed from 
selected plants. The average grain grower may not care 

to take the time 
to make the head 
row tests to im- 
prove his seed, but 
it would be more 
profitable to do so 
than to continual- 
ly plant common, 
mixed, field run 
seed, as is com- 
monly practiced. 
When the seed 
from selected 
heads of the same 
variety of grain 
are planted in ad- 
jacent drills, we 
have a chance to 
compare the dif- 
erences in their 
progeny. The 
seed from the best 
yielding head rows 
are used to plant 
increase blocks and so on until enough seed is secured to 
plant a large field. (See Figs. 197 and 198). 

444. Preparing Land for Small Grain. As a general 
rule, breaking land intended for small grain well in ad- 
vance of seeding, will give considerably larger yields than 
late breaking. Breaking to a depth of less than 4 to 5 




Fig. 197. Head rows of wheat showing differences 
that may be noted when seed from different stools 
are planted in adjacent rows. 

Kansas Agricultural College. 



Cultivated Grains 309 

inches or greater than 8 to 10 inches is not often desirable. 
The advantages that follow early breaking are due to the in- 
creased amount of moisture stored and the encouragement 
given to the formation of nitrates in the soil. (^ 128). 

445. Early and Late Plowing. Many experiments 
have been made that show how great the gain is when 




Fig. 198. Increase blocks of wheat and oats planted from seed grown in head rows. 
Increase blocks planted in this way afford another opportunity for comparing 
quality and yield. 

Courtesy Prof. Frank Spragg, INIichigan Agricultural College. 

early breaking is compared with late breaking. At the 
Oklahoma Experiment Station, three plots were plowed 
on dates indicated in the table in ^ 446. In the early plow- 
ing, the soil was moist and readily formed a mellow bed 
that absorbed and largely retained the summer rains. 
The medium late breaking broke up lumpy and was drier, 
while the very late breaking was so weedy, and broke up 
so lumpy that it required about eight times as much labor 
to get the land in reasonably fair condition for seeding. 



310 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 




Fig. 199. Wheat growiiiE on plot No. 1, which has been merely double disced and 
continuously .seeded to the same crop. Compare with Figs. 200 and 201. 



446. All were planted on September loth. On the 
early plowed plot, germination was prompt and regular, 
and the plants went into the winter with a good start, 
and as a result grew off earlier in the spring and matured 
their crop earlier. On the late plowed plots, germination 
was slow and irregular, due to lack of moisture and the 
unsettled condition of the soil. The following j'ields were 
obtained : 

Date of Plowing. Yield per acre. 

Earh^ preparation July 19th 31.3 bushel 

Medium Aug. 15th 28.5 bushel 

Late Sept. 11th 15.3 bushel 

447. The early breaking was worth about 25c a day 
per acre over the late plowing. Results obtained at the 
Kansas Experiment Station indicated similairly a gain 
of about 40c per day in favor of early deep plowing, when 
compared with late, shallow plowing. Results are usual- 



Cultivated Grains 



311 




Fig. 200. Wheat growing on plot No. 6, which had had a heavy crop of rye 
plowed under, and deeply plowed and summer fallowed after each harvest. 
Compare with Fig. 199, and results noted in table in 11449. 

ly, but not always, so decidedly in favor of early prepara- 
tion. Indeed, sometimes there is no gain whatever, but 
seldom if ever, any decreased yields result from early 
deep plowing. 

448. Listing in Arid Sections is sometimes preferred 
to flat breaking, especially if the fields are level and do 
not wash. Prof. TenEyck reports the following results 
with wheat at the Ft. Hays Kansas Experiment Station: 

Yield of Wheat on Flat Broke, Listed, and Fallowed Land 



Soil Preparation 



Late fall y)lowed 

Early fall plowed 

Early fall li.sted 

Summer fallowed (2 plots alternated) 
Suifimer fallowed, each plot 



Yield per Acre in Bushels 



Total in 5 




Years 


Average 


59.9 


■ 12. 


83.3 


16.7 


104.4 


20.9 


107.8 


23.6 


53.9 


11.8 



312 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



449. Green Manuring. (See ^ 131). Prof. Shaw of 
the Cahfornia Experiment Station, reports the following 
results which show the possibilities of deep plowing, and 

a single green manur- 
ing on sandy soils 
naturally lacking in 
the qualities that 
humus gives. First 
a number of plots were 
summer fallowed, and 
in the fall plowed to 
a depth of 6 inches, 
harrowed and seeded 
as indicated in the 
table, except No. 1, 
which was so^vn to 
wheat continuously 
and only double disced 
after each harvest. 
The other plots were 
deeply plowed after 
each harvest and sum- 
mer fallowed. Com- 
pare Figs. 199, 200 
and 201. Also H 143. 
Yield of Wheat Under Different Soil Treatments 




Fig. 201. Wheat plants from six plots treated 
differently, showing comparative develop- 
ment: 1, plot eontinuously seeded to wheat; 
2, barefallowed; 3, horse beans grown and 
plowed under after previous crop; 4, Can- 
adian field peas grown and plowed under; 5, 
rye and vetch grown and plowed under; 6, 
rye grown and plowed under. 



Crop Grown and Treatment Given in 
First Year 


Yield per Acre 


2d Year 


3d Year 


Average 
2 Years 


1. Wheat after wheat double disced. ,26 bu. 
2 Bare fallow 


15.7 

28. 

35.3 

33.7 

50.7 

51.3 


38.6 
40.0 

39.3 
57.3 
53.3 


33.3 


3. Horse beans, (turned under) Hght 

4. Canadian field peas (turned under) . . light 

5. Rye and Vetch (turned under) heavy 

6. Rye (turned under) heavy 


37.6 
36.5 
54. 
52.3 



Cultivated Grains 313 

450. In the results, the increased yield was in pro- 
portion to the amount of vegetable matter turnc^d under. 
The advantages of deep plowing and green manuring 
were noticeable. Similar tests made on heavier land, 
richer in humus, did not show such decided increase. 

451. The Fungus Diseases of Cereals of most import- 
ance are the rusts and smuts. The rusts, (Fig. 88) do 
greater damage, and unfortunately no satisfactory means 
of control are known. The selection of varieties show- 
ing reasonable resistance is the best safeguard against 
loss from rust. Every class in Agriculture should make 
the treatments to prevent smut in wheat, oats, barley, 
and sorghums. (See ^ 222). There are a number of 
different species of grain smuts. There are several species 
peculiar to wheat, and likewise other grain crops. Some 
kinds may be prevented by treating the seed grain with 
a dilute solution of formalin, while with others the treat- 
ment with hot water will be effective. The cost of 
treating seed grains is small. 

451a. Loss from Grain Smuts. Visit grain fields just before 
harvest. Mark a square yard and count the stools, noting the 
number smutted. Calculate the per cent of loss. How much could 
a farmer afford to pay for seed wheat or seed oats reasonably free 
from smut? 

451b. How many acres in the school district are planted to 
wheat, oats, barley, rye, and sorghum? What was the highest, the 
lowest, and the average yield for each grain? What was the 
average loss caused by smuts for each crop? What would this 
amount to for the school district? How does this sum compare 
with the cost of the school house? 



CHAPTER XLIII 
WHEAT, OATS, RICE, BARLEY AND RYE 

452. Wheat is most largely grown in cool, temperate 
climates, though it is grown to considerable extent in the 
tropical sections of all continents. Its winter growing 
habit and early spring maturing, make it especially w'ell 
suited to the higher and drier sections of the Middle West- 
ern States. While the varieties adapted to fall seeding 
are grown almost exclusively in the warmer wheat sections, 
there are many varieties adapted to spring seecHng grown 
in the colder climates. 

453. The Wheat Genus includes eight types: The 
(1) einkorn, (2) spelt, (3) emmer, (4) poulard, and (5) 
Polish wheats are forms that are very hardy and drouth- 
resistant, and are growTi to some extent to-day in dry 
sections, but more for feed for live stock than for human 
food. These grains produce a very inferior flour. They 
were largely cultivated in ancient times throughout 
Egypt, Greece, and the Roman Empire. 

454. The (6) Common Wheat includes the varieties 
largely cultivated throughout the world as bread wheats. 
Their larger use is due not only to their greater yielding 
power, but because of the superior quality of their flour 
for making leavened bread. This quality is due to the 
presence of gluten, which causes the flour to form a dough 
when mixed with w^ater. This 'on leavening and baking 
forms a porous bread. Leavenmg is produced by the 
formation of carbonic acid gas in the dough, either by 
yeast or from baking powder. The (7) Club Wheat 

(314) 



Wheat, Oats, Rice, Barley and Rye 315 

varieties are readily distinguished by their short, compact, 
club shaped heads. Their milling quahties are similar 
to common wheat. 

455. (8) Durum Wheat varieties have noticeably 
broad, smooth leaves. The heads are large and often 
so heavily bearded that they resemble barley. The 
grains are large and very hard and have more gluten and 
less starch than common wheat. Durum wheat is 
sometimes called "macaroni wheat" from the fact that it 
is particularly well suited and largely used for making 
macaroni and other paste products. The best durum 
wheat flour makes an excellent quality of bread, though 
not naturally so white as bread from common wheat. 

456. The Hardness and Texture of the grain vary 
not only in the different varieties, but with the climate and 
season in which the wheat is growTi. Hard wheat varie- 
ties which characterize dry regions, become soft when 
groA\ii in moist climates, and vice versa. This explains 
why the fall so"uti wheats grown east of the Mississippi 
River are largely soft wheats, and the wheat from the 
drier sections of the West, largely hard wheats. Hard 
wheat grains show a dark, horney appearance on the 
exposed surface when cut across, while the cross sections 
of soft w^heat are white and starchy. Varying with the 
kind, quality, and grade of wheat and the milling processes, 
the out turn of mill products are about as follows: Flour 
usually 70 to 75 per cent ranging from 65 to 80 per cent. 
The flour is usually run in two or more grades; bran 15 to 
20 per cent; shorts and middlings, 5 to 8 per cent. 

457. Oats grow rapidly, a habit made possible bj?^ their 
large development of leaves. Prof. King reports that 
oats require more water to make a pound of dry matter 
than wheat or com, his experiment indicating 504 pounds 



316 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

of water for oats, 464 pounds for barley, and 277 pounds 
for corn. (T[ 106). In the dry warm climates, red oats 
are more successful than the white oats, and probably 
require less water. In sections far enough south to allow 
fall seeding oats are valuable, not only as a grain crop, 
but as a winter grazing crop; in fact they are often grown 
for this purpose alone. 

458. Preparing Land for Oats. Oat yields are affected 
more by the nature of the soil, and the rain-fall during 
their growing season, than by the manner in which the 
soil is prepared for seeding. They give their best returns 
on heavy stiff lands. Fertilizers like potash and phos- 
phates, that tend to increase the grain rather than the 
stalk are preferred. Nitrogenous fertiUzers increase the 
natural tendency to make a large growth of stems and 
leaves, often causing the stems to lodge. 

458a. Classes and Varieties of Oats. The cultivated oats belong 
to three groups as follows: A. Common or Branched Oats which 
include most of the cultivated varieties, commonly classed as white 
oats in the grain trade. Some varieties have dark or even black 
grains. The panicles or heads are open and spreading. B. Tartar- 
ian or Side Oats have erect, close panicles, the spikelets being on short 
branches that hang to one side of the head. This form includes 
but few varieties that are generally cultivated. C. The Red or 
Southern Oats, originally from Southern Europe, are often called 
"rust-proof oats" because of their comparative resistance to rust. 
They are generally used in the South, where the more vigorous 
growing white oats do not thrive. Red oat varieties are growing 
in favor with northern farmers, due to their early maturing habits. 
Their low-growing, stout stems, comparative resistance to rust, 
ability to stand up well and avoid lodging, drouth resisting quahties, 
and large grains make them especially popular in the South. 

459. Rice is said to be the principal cereal in the diet 
of nearly 800 million people, which is more than half of 
the world 's population. It makes a healthful, economical. 



Wheat, Oats, Rice, Barley and Rye 317 

appetizing food and its use in American homes is rapidly 
increasing, especially as a base in preparing side dishes. 
It was the most important grain in China 3,000 B.C., 
but was not kno^^^l to the ancient Egj^ptians. It was 
introduced into Italy in the Fifteenth century and into 
the Mrginia Colony in 1647, and was first grown in the 
United States in a garden in Charleston, S. C. in 1694. 

460. Most of the American rice is grown in South 
Carolina, and in the Gulf prairie regions of Texas and 
Louisiana. It is successfully gro^vn in inland locations 
in South Carolina, California, Arkansas, and as far north 
as Southern Illinois. Rice is usually and most successful- 
ly cultivated under irrigation. Water is necessary not 
only for the best development of the crop, but to keep 
dowTi weeds. In oriental countries rice is germinated in 
beds, and the seedlings transplanted by hand, but in 
America the ground is prepared, seeded, and harvested 
by the same machinery used in handling other cereals. 
The fields are usually kept covered with water from the 
time plants are a few inches high until near the harvest 
period. 

461. Barley and Rye are largely grown in Europe and 
in a few sections of the United States. While barley is 
largely used in the manufacture of beer, hardy varieties 
are often groA\Ti for winter pasture, and to produce grain 
for feeding. In some sections, barley is mown when "in 
the boot" for hay. Rye has similar uses. Because of 
their hardiness and vigor, they are both much grown to 
furnish winter pasture and cover crops, the production of 
grain being a secondary consideration. 



CHAPTER XLIV 
CORN 

462. The Com Plant is an interesting one because it 
is the most important American crop. It is valued not 
only as a producer of grain, but forage also. From the 
grain we get meal, various forms of breakfast foods, 
starch, glucose made from starch and so largely used in 
candies and sirups, corn oil largely used in making rubber 
tires for vehicles, and many other useful products. It 
is an annual plant that has a reasonably fixed period of 
growth from germination to maturity, and dies before the 
growing season ends. Some of the tall growing forms 
found in tropical America require over 200 days to mature 
their crop. (See Fig. 188). 

462a. Species and Varieties. Corn includes the following 
species, distinguished largely by the amount of horny endosperm, 
in the fruit or grain (If 18). 

a. Pod Corn has the grains as well as the ears covered by shucks. 
This is supposed to be the primitive form from which the cultivated 
varieties have been developed. 

b. Pop Corn is recognized by the smallness of the grains, and 
the hard horny endosperm extending to the top of the grain. When 
suddenly heated to high temperatures, the endosperm everts, with 
a "pop," forming the familiar soft, starchy mass. 

c. Flint Corn has a glossy cai)ped grain, dUe to the horny endo- 
sperm extending to the top of the grain. Many varieties of this 
class mature in 90 to 120 days or less. Because of this early matur- 
ing habit they are largely used as the staple field corn of the New 
England States, and in many sections of Canada. They do not 
yield so well as dent varieties and are being replaced by the develop- 
ment of early maturing dent varieties. 

d. Dent Corn is the type cultivated almost exclusively in the 

(318) 



Corn 319 

Corn Belt states, and in all tropical sections. The glossy, horny, 
endosperm covers only the sides and back of the grain, only in rare 
instances covering the crown. The amount of horny endosperm 
may be increased in any variety by systematic selection. The top 
of the grain shrinks in or "dents" as the starchy endosperm dries 
out in maturing. The maturing period varies from 85 to 130 days in 
Northern varieties to 120 to 140 days in Southern forms. 

e. Soft Corn has no horny endosperm, the latter being entirely 
white. It is a tropical corn, cultivated by South American Indians. 

/. Sweet Corn has a horny translucent, wrinkled grain. The 
endosperm contains a large proportion of sugar, and but little 
starch. Varieties of sweet corn are usually cultivated for table use 
and for canning. They are grown in large fields in Maryland and 
adjacent states to supply corn for canning. 

463. In Studying the Corn Plant agriculturally, it 
is well to note its forms, habits, and adaptations to vary- 
ing environments of moisture, soil, wind, and sunshine. 

464. The Moisture Requirements of a tall, succulent 
plant, exposing so many leaves to the wind, must be large. 
We have previously learned that a large leaf surface is 
necessary for rapid growth. There must be a correspond- 
ingly large root system to absorb the moisture from the 
soil. (See Fig. 203). The large leaf development places 
corn at a disadvantage in countries having low rainfall 
and dry air, but on the other hand accounts for its great 
vigor in humid sections or under irrigation conditions. 

465. The Moisture Requirements Increase with Age. 
While the plants are young and the leaf surface small, the 
daily gain in plant substance per acre may not be over 25 
to 50 pounds a day, whereas after the tasseling period, 
with its fully developed leaves, it may increase 200 pounds 
or more a day. The largest part of the moisture used in 
maturing a crop of corn is used in the last few weeks 
preceding maturity. This explains why corn yields are 
so greatly benefited by early summer rains. Fig, 202 shows 



320 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



the relation between average annual productions in the 
United States, and average annual rainfall during June, 
July, and August. Moisture stored in the soil and con- 
served by surface cultivation is as good as a rain. 

466. What is a Stand of Corn? In humid regions not 
subject to drying winds, successful experience indicates 
12 to 18 inches in the drill, in rows 42 inches apart, or 
about lOjOOO stalks per acre. In other sections of limited 

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Fig. 202. Corn needs water during the maturing period to make good yields. 
Black line shows average yield of corn in Corn Belt states by years. Dotted line 
shows rainfall during June, July and August by inches.— After J. W. Smith, U. 
S. Department of Agriculture. 

rainfall, 30 to 36 inches in the drill, or about 5,000 stalks 
to the acre has been found to give more satisfactory 
yields of corn. This variation in the number of stalks 
per acre in not made because of the difference in the 
amount of soil fertility, but because of the difference in 
the supply of soil moisture. From this it may be under- 
stood that the stand is a local farm problem to be estimat- 
ed according to rainfall and to local experience. 

467. The Growth of Corn Roots has been extensively 
investigated in recent years, and as a result of discoveries 
by Prof. TenEyck and others, the practice of cultivating 
corn with deep cutting plow^s has largely been discon- 
tinued. We have previously learned that we can not 



Corn 



321 



cultivate plant roots without destroying them. The three 
most important advantages of inter-tilling crops are, (1) 
keeping down weeds, (2) conserving the soil moisture and, 
(3) favoring nitrification. Other grain crops that are 
seeded thickly on the ground, like the small grains are 
not cultivated, and there is no artificial soil mulch. 
However, they do have a mass of fine roots that form 
a complete matt a few inches below the surface. This 
matt of fine roots takes up water moving downward after 
showers, or upward toward the surface and acts as a par- 
tial barrier to surface evaporation. Corn is planted 
later than the small grains, but soon forms a similar 
mass of roots, at least by the time the plants are half 
grown. (Fig. 203.) 
Deep cultivation, 
therefore, destroys 
many surface feed- 
ing roots. Experi- 
ments and experi- 
ence have demon- 
strated that deep 
cultivation pro- 
duces lower yields. 
468. Inter-Plant- 
ed Crops with Corn. 
Corn in the United 
States grows from 
85 to 140 days, in 
which time it ma- 
tures the ears, and 
the stalks die. (See 

■| 144). In some Fig. 203. The roots of corn plants 65 days after 
aor>+ir>r>c! +Viio Ioqtt-cc! planting. Deep cultivation would distroy many 

»ec UOnS, iniS leaves of these roots. Kansas Agricultural College. 




322 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

from one to five months of the open growing season for 
the fields to grow a crop of weeds or grass. In humid 
sections, many farmers plant cowpeas, soy beans, peanuts 
or other summer growing crops in the drills or in the 
middles, thus substituting some valuable crop for the 
weeds. These crops are not planted until the corn is 
well advanced. Sometimes the corn is planted in every 
other row but twice as thick, and the alternate rows 
planted to peas. The success of inter-planted summer 
growing crops depends upon the summer supply of soil 
moisture. (^ 144). 

469. Improving Corn. In selecting varieties and 
improving corn, in order to secure strains that will give 
larger yields and better quality of corn, there are two 
fundamental steps that must be taken in order to develop 
high yielding varieties for any climatic region : 

1 . Testing strains of a number of promising varieties 
in order to find out the best foundation strains upon 
which to begin improvement work. 

2. Improving the strain or variety. This can be 
accomplished by each year carefully selecting the seed 
ears for : 

a. Improvement of stalk characters by selecting the 
ears from stalks having desirable qualities; 

b. Re-selecting these ears for good physical quahty; 

c. Testing these ears by a yield, or ear-to-row test in 
order to find out which ones have the best yielding quality; 

d. Producing cross bred seed. (See ^ 173). 

470. Finding the Best Variety. Farmers ' observations 
on average field results will be valuable, but more definite 
and accurate knowledge may be gained by growing a num- 
ber of variety samples in adjacent rows. If we plant 20 
or more kinds of corn in as many rows and make all the 



Corn 323 

conditions the same in every row, except the seed, we 
may safely conclude that any differences in the yields 
in the rows may be considered as due to differences in the 
seed. In making practical field tests of varieties in this 
way, care 'should be taken to have a uniform piece of land, 
rows of the same length, approximately the same number 
of stalks in each row, and uniform cultivation. Often 
the piece of land on which a test is made looks to be 
uniform, but in reality is not. To make sure of detecting 
any differences in the soil, it is usual to plant every fifth 
row from a uniform sample, known as the "soil-check 
row." At harvest time the crop from each row is gathered 
and weighed, and the results recorded. These are the 
essentials in testing varieties, and may be carried out by 
any thoughtful boy or farmer, with profit to themselves 
and to the community. 

471. Improving Stalk Characters. Most farmers se- 
lect their seed corn from the crib. If the seed ears were 
selected in the field shortly after maturity, they could 
pick their ears from early maturing stalks, get large ears 
from medium sized stalks with the ears borne below the 
middle of the stalks rather than above, and if desired, 
from stalks having one or more ears. They could also 
select ears that had the ends covered tightly by the shuck 
and so turned down that the grain would be protected 
from water getting in the ear and causing decay. If 
selected in the field they could know that every ear came 
from a stalk that stood up, and was free from suckers, and 
etc. Experiments and experiences have shown that the 
yield from corn intelligently selected for good stalk char- 
acters, will be larger and better than the most carefully 
crib selected seed. How many farmers do you know 
who select seed corn in the field? 



324 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

472. Selecting Ears for Physical Quality is all that can 
be accomplished when seed ears are selected in the crib. 
It is not possible to tell whether the large ear with well 
filled, deep grains owes its quality to a favorable position 
of the parent stalk, lack of competition, or superior pro- 
ducing qualities in the parent. There are three qualities 



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Fig. 204. Differences in per cent of grain is indicated by size of cob, length and 
soundness of grain. Upper ear shelled 83.3% grain; lower ear 86.5% grain. In 
ear-to-row test both produced 86.5 bu. per acre ear corn. 
Courte.sy Prof. C. G. Williams, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. 

that should be considered in selecting seed ears, whether 
the selection is made in the crib or in the field. The 
most important are characters relating to : 

a. Maturity and Soundness of grains, which is indicat- 
ed by the fullness of the grains and by being tight on the 
cob when dry. Soundness not only means freedom from 
damage, but good germinating qualities. (See germina- 
tion tests). 

b. Density of Ear is indicated by weight or heaviness 
in proportion to size. Well matured, closely fitting grains, 



Corn 



325 



well filled butts and tips, and a high per cent of grain to 
total weight of ear, are characters that indicate density. 
(See Fig. 204). 

c. Uniformity of Ear and Grain are characters that 
indicate purity and good breeding. It comprehends all 
qualities that belong to a variety. The various points 




Fig. 205. Difference in yields of two seed oars in car-tn-row t-st. Row 3 planted 
from seed of ear 3 yielded 49.3 bu. per acre with 66 per cent good ears. Row 13 
yielded 9.5.2 bu. per acre with 76 per cent good ears. Average yield for all ears 
in the test 74.2 bu. per acre. 

Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station. 



considered in selecting seed ears are mentioned in corn 
score cards used by many state corn growers associations. 

473. Selecting the Better Producing Strains requires 
more time and more care than selecting for stalk and ear 
characters. Seed from an ear having extra good physical 
qualities will not necessarily be a superior yielder, though 
in a general way it will be some better than seed from an 
ear having poor physical quality. Improvement in 
physical quality, however, is important in itself. 



326 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



4tl^. In the table below we have the results for 12 
ears from an ear-to-row test, of the 50 highest scoring ears 
selected from 40 bushels of native mongrel corn. This 
table will tell better than words what such a test means to 
a farmer looking for improved seed corn. 

Results from an Ear-to-Row test showing Yielding Quality 
AND other Characters in Crop from Well Selected Ears 



Register 


Weight of 
Mother 

Ear 
Ounces 


Performance Record 


Number 

of 

Mother 

Ear 


Per cent of 
Barren 

Stalks 


Per cent of 
Good Ears 


Pounds 
per 

Stalk 


Calculated 
Yield per 

Acre 
Bushels 


3 

7 
11 
13 
16 
21 
25 
28 
31 
42 
47 
49 


. 16.7 
16.7 
17.2 
13.9 
17.3 
14.8 
16.9 
17.1 
19.1 

16.4 


4.0 
1.9 

24.3 

23.5 
7.7 

23.4 
3.2 
2.1 
7.5 
2.9 
8.1 

22.5 


71.4 
62.6 
34.6 
38.7 
39.6 
41.5 
65.8 
66.0 
86.8 
71.8 
76.2 
27.3 


0.686 
0.733 
0.403 
0.355 
0.439 
0.450 
0.666 
0.747 
0.670 
0.696 
0.653 
0.396 


60.5 
64.5 
35.4 
28.8 
38.6 
39.6 
57.5 
65.7 
58.9 
61.4 
57.4 
34.8 



Average for 50 ears tested 47.6 bu. per acre. 

475. Testing Seed Com for Germination. In the 

South corn is thoroughly sun dried before it is harvested,^ 
and as a rule will give a high percent of germination. 
However, there are differences in the vigor of germination 
that are important. In the Central and Northern states 
the growing season is short, and corn is sometimes not 
sufficiently dried out to prevent being injured by early 
freezes. In such climates, seed corn should be gathered 
from the field early and stored where it will dry out with- 
out freezing. Well dried grains will not suffer from freez- 
ing, but if full of moisture, the result is fatal, as it kills 
the germ. Poor stands are often due to the use of dead 



Corn 



327 



seed. We can avoid uncertainty by testing a few grains 
from every ear intended for seed, to determine whether 
or not the seed will germinate. (See ^31, also Fig. 207). 
476. How to make the Test. Secure a gardener's flat, 
(H 15) and fill nearly full with wet sawdust or clean sand. 
Divide into checks about 2 inches square by stout strings, 
as shown in Fig. 206. Make a diagram of the checks and 
number the first row from 1 to 10, and the second row 




Fig. 206. Seed corn germinator for testing the germination of grains from a 
number of ears of corn. 

Courtesy Prof. A. G. McCall, University of Ohio. 

from 1 1 to 20, so that every check stands for a number. 
Take the selected seed ears that are to be tested and re- 
move 6 grains from different parts of the ear with a knife. 
The grains from ear No. 1 are put into check No. 1, 
pushing the germ end down, and so on. When seed from 
all the ears have been placed in position, cover with an 
extra half inch of sand and keep the flat in a warm place. 
Make a record of the germination on your diagram. If 
all six seeds do not germinate, discard the corsponding 
ear as unfit for seed purpose; likewise seed from any ear 
that gives weak or slow germination. Be careful to have 



328 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



uniform conditions in all the checks. Fig. 207 shows the 
method of making a test with a "rag doll germinator." 

477. Harvesting Corn. There are several ways of 
harvesting corn. In many sections the corn is husked 
directly from the stalk, and only the ear saved, stock be- 
ing turned into the fields to graze. This is the general 
practice in the Northern States. (Fig. 208). In the 
South it is usual to "snap" or "slip shuck" the ear, leav- 
ing the inner shucks on the ear to protect the corn from 




Fig. 207. Rag Doll germinator for testing seed corn. 
4 discarded because of poor germination. 



Ears numbered 1, 2, and 



the granary insects. (^240). In the North the removal 
of all the husks is necessary because they would retard 
the drying out of the ears. Southern corn usually has 
about 8 to 1 1 percent moisture at harvest, while northern 
corn has 14 to 20 percent moisture, — often so much 
moisture that it will not keep when stored in bulk in cars or 
ships in warm climates. 

478. Saving Corn Stover. In many cases, especially 
in the North, the entire stalk is cut and shocked, about 
the time the corn is matured. (Fig. 194). The corn 
is left in the shocks to "cure" or dry out. Later the 
ears are husked out and cribbed, while the stover is fed 
to the stock. In some cases the shocks are hauled to a 
shredder, a machine that separates the ears from the 
stalks and cuts the stover into shreds, so that it can be 



Corn 



329 



fed more easily and with less waste and better results. 
About 30 to 40 percent of the feeding value of a crop of 
corn is in the stover. The stover will be 40 to 70 percent 
of the total air dry matter in the crop. The cost of shred- 
ding is usually estimated at $1.50 to $3.00 per ton. Its 
feeding value is about equal to cotton seed hulls or timothy 
hay. If left in the field it is largely lost. 

479. Corn Silage. Corn is the crop most universally 
used for silage. It will produce more pounds of dry 




Fig 208. Harvesting corn by husking, leaving the stalks in the field. 
Courtesy Prof. Hartly, United States Department of agriculture. 

matter per acre than any other crop, unless an exception 
be made for some of the sugar sorghums. With a wider 
recognition of the great value of silage and the increasing 
use of silos, we have another method of saving the entire 
yield of a corn crop. A method of harvesting a crop of 
corn that saves 1,000 to 4,000 pounds of valuable feeding 
materials per acre from going to waste, should be more 
generally used. Silos are coming into general use in all 
parts of the country. When first introduced they were 
used mostly by dairymen. They have proven to be 
profitable to general feeders. 



CHAPTER XLV 
SORGHUMS 

BY PROF. A. H. LEIDIGH, Department of Agronomy, Kansas 
Agricultural College. 

480. Sorghum is the name of a group of large, rank- 
growing grasses that include a number of cultivated 
forms. Some forms have been long in cultivation in 
Africa, India, and China, and were known to the early 
Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. The sorghums include 
species gro's\Ti for sirup, forage, grain, and brooms. 

481. Adaptations. The most striking character of 
Sorghums is their drouth-resisting or drouth-enduring 
habits. This is due partly to their extensive and peculiar 




Fig. 209. Blackhull Kaffir. Good preparation, pure bred seed and frequent culti- 
vation combined to produce large yield and uniform quality. 

(330) 



Sorghums 



331 



root development, but mostly to the habit of curling up 
their leaves when dry weather comes and waiting without 
serious injury for timely showers. All grasses show this 
quality to some extent, but few have the power of reviving 
and renewing growth like the sorghums. When the 
stalk is cut off near the ground, new shoots will come from 
the stubs and continue to grow until killed by the frost. 
As a result of this habit, sometimes two or three cuttings 
of hay in one season are made in the 
lower South, where the growing seasons 
are long. The suckers mature some- 
what later than the main stem. The 
stooling habit is by some thought to 
be an undesirable one for the grain 
sorghums because it results in uneven 
ripening of the heads. In the forage 
sorghums it is an advantage. 

482. Introduction into United States. 
Sorghums have been grown in the 
United States for sirup and fodder for 
more thaa half a century, and for broom 
production still longer. Their great 
value as grain and forage for the West 
has been recognized within the last 
twenty years. In the humid sections 
corn is the staple feeding grain, but in 
the West where corn is uncertain, owing 
to the blighting effects of occasional hot 
winds and an irregularly distributed 
rainfall, they are far better yielders and 
surer than corn. In a season of severe 
drouth, the Oklahoma A. and M. College 
secured a yield of 56 bushels of Black- 




Fig. 210. A. Sorghum 
midge greatly mag- 
nified. B and C, sec- 
tional views of the 
sorghum flower: a, 
first outer glume; b, 
second outer glume. 
X's indicate points 
at which eggs of the 
sorghum midge are 
commonly found. — 
Harper Dean. 



332 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

hull Kaffir per acre, 39 bushels from dwarf milo, while 
corn was a failure. 

483. Flowers and Seeds. The seeds are produced at the 
top of the stalk in one head or panicle. In kafir, the heads 
are erect, while in others, as milo, they are bent over and 
are said to be "goosenecked." This is an objectionable 
character and efforts are being successfully made to develop 
varieties of milo with erect heads. The color of the heads 
varies from white to shades of red, yellow, black, and brown, 
depending on the color and relative exposure of seeds and 
glumes. In most of the grain sorghums the seeds are larger 
than the glumes and give color to the head, though in the 
forage sorghums the reverse is usually true. In some sections 
the seeds are blasted or destroyed by the sorghum midge, 
a small insect that lays its eggs on the young ovaries and 
the larvae destroy the developing grains. (Fig. 210). 

484. The Sweet or Forage Sorghum includes varieties 
whose juices contain a high percent of sugar. A decade 
ago they were cultivated for making sirup, usually referred 
to as "sorghum molasses." Owing to the competition of 
cane sirup and corn sirup they are not so largely grown for 
this purpose as formerly. Considerable effort was also 
made to develop a sorghum sugar industry and varieties 
were developed having 10 to 20 percent sugar in the sap, 
though owing to the difficulties encountered in crystallizing 
the sugar the attempts were abandoned. 

485. Forage. In recent years the Sumac, Orange and 
Amber and other varieties of sweet sorghums, however, 
have been very largely grown for forage, and are becoming 
popular for silage, the crop being planted with grain drills 
or broadcasted like cereals. The crop is also grown in 
rows so that cultivation is possible, sowmg the seed thick- 
ly in the row. This is practiced in regions of scant rain- 



Sorghums 333 

fall and it is generally admitted that a larger yield per 
acre is ol^tained by this method. 

486. The Grain Sorghums belong to several rather 
distinct groups, such as kaffir, durra, kaoliang, shallu, etc. 
The kaffir varieties have stout stalks, crowded leaves with 
overlapping leaf sheaths, cylindrical and more or less 
elongated heads. The durras and some kaoliangs have 
shorter, more compact, and somewhat egg-shaped heads, 
which, in the durra group are often pendant or goose- 
necked as in milo. BlackhuU kaffir is the most widely 
gro^vn of all the grain sorghums owing to its good yields 
of grain, erect heads, and the fodder value of the stover. 
Dwarf milo is the next in importance but owing to its 
dwarf stature and lack of heavy leaves it has low forage 
value. In some sections dwarf milo gives larger grain 
yields than kafir. (Fig. 209). 

487. The Feeding Value of the grain sorghums is but 
slightly less than that of corn, and they are now largely 
used in place of corn. (See ^331-2). Kaffir meal alone 
or mixed with wheat flour is used in making griddle cakes. 
Besides the grain, the stalks are used in the same way as 
corn, either as stover or for silage. 

488. In Broom Corn the flower stalks or panicles which 
furnish the "brush" for brooms, have very long and 
fibrous branches which come from a short central stem. 
There are two general types of broom corn, the ''stand- 
ard," which is tall, and the "dwarf" which has stems usual- 
ly from 4 to 5 feet tall, producing a brush 16 to 24 inches 
long. The value of a broom-corn crop can be very greatly 
increased by growing a seed plot separate from the general 
field, and destroying all plants in the early blooming 
state that have not produced a good brush. 

489. Improving Varieties and Saving Seed. The 



334 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

sorghums have the stamens and ovaries in the same 
flower, but much cross polhnation is brought about by the 
wind and insects. Close fertilization does not seem to be 
naturally injurious. Bagging the heads of good plants 
and planting the seed in plots away from the general crop 
is the easiest and surest way of securing good seed. The 
seed patch should be visited at flowering time and the 
heads removed from undesirable plants. Much work 
needs to be done to improve the forage qualities of the 
sweet sorghums, and the grain producing habits of the 
grain sorghums, and the brush of broom corn. 

490. Cultivation. It is a popular notion that sorghums 
draw heavily on the soil fertility. This is not true, for 
they really take but little more mineral matter out of the 
soil than a crop of corn of equal size. The late maturing 
sorts are very exhaustive of soil moisture, however, and in 
this way the bad effects on succeeding crops are partially 
accounted for. (^ 134). All the sorghums are easily 
injured by frost or even cool weather and for this reason 
demand reasonably late planting. Young plants grow 
slowly at first and are easily injured by extremes of wet 
or dry weather, and by weeds. They often yield well 
with little care, but will give good returns for thorough 
preparation of the land before seeding, especially for 
several workings to destroy the weeds that come before 
planting time. The plants are small at a time when weed 
growth is rapid, and early tillage will aid in saving mois- 
ture as well as in killing weeds. Planting is made in drills, 
much as for corn. If planted for grain or sirup, planting 
is much thinner than for forage. Prof. Ball has suggested 
when planted in rows 42 inches apart in the drier regions, 
that Kaoliangs be one stalk each 5 to 6 inches, milo and 
durras 7 to 8 inches, and kaffirs 9 to 10 inches in the drill. 



CHAPTER XLVI 

COTTON 

491. The most important product of the cotton plant 
is the fiber. Wool and silk are the animal fibers used in 
spinning threads for soft fabrics. Cotton, flax, hemp, and 
jute are vegetable fibers used in textile manufactures. 
The coarser fibers, largely used in cordage and bag 
manufacture, are hemp, jute, sisal, and some thirty others 
of minor importance. It should be noted that cotton is 
the most important fiber in the world, and that it is most 
largely grown in the United States. The manufacture of 
cotton alone gives employment to more people than any 
other single industry. 




Fig. 211. A cottxjn field on prairie land showing uniform, fruitful, stalks and burra 
with storm-proof qualities. Grov/n from pedigreed seed. 

(335) 



336 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

492. History of the Cotton Industry. Cotton has not 
always been the important plant that it now is. It was 
first knoAvn to our civilization in Southwestern Asia and 
China, and is said to have been first introduced to the 
countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea, during 
the time of Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.). Species 
of cotton, different from old world forms, were found 
growing wild, and sometimes in cultivation in Mexico, and 
the West Indies, and various parts of South America when 
these countries were first visited by Europeans. How- 
ever, owing to the great expense of removing the lint 
from the seed by hand, wool, flax, and silk continued to 
be the most important fibers until near the beginning of 
the 18th century. 

493. The invention of the spinning frame in 1769, by 
Richard Arkwright and the cotton gin in 1794 by Eli Whit- 
ney, made it possible for cotton to be the basis of large 
manufacturing industries, not only in America, but also 
in Europe. It soon became, and has remained our largest 
export production, and to-day brings more money to the 
United States than any other class of exports. 

494. The Growing and Fruiting Habits of cotton are 
different from the grains. The latter are annuals and 
have a reasonably fixed growing period in which the 
maturity of the fruit is the begimiing of their death. 
Cotton grows and fruits as long as conditions continue 
favorable. The stalk has a stout central stem, usually 
from 1 to 5 feet tall, varying with the soil, rainfall, and 
variety of cotton. The branches are of two kinds; (a) 
fruiting branches which form a bloom in the axil of every 
leaf, and (b) vegetative branches which, like the stem, 
do not bear flowers, but only leaves and fruiting branches. 
(See Figs. 212 and 213). 



Cotton 337 

495. Characters Considered in Selecting Seed. As 
a flower is produced at every node on fruiting branches, 
it is plain that branches with short internodes will form 
flowers more rapidly than branches with long internodes, 
and short jointedness is therefore an indication of a 
tendency to rapid fruiting. In some plants the first 
fruiting branches are formed early and close to the ground, 
but in others later and higher up on the stem. We can 
thus see that the latter type of stalk would be late in 
beginning to form fruits, and the former early. Again, 
in some varieties we find that the fruiting branches are 
short, and cease to lengthen after forming just a few 
nodes. Such branches are said to have a determinate 
growth. In others the branches continue to grow and 
flower thruout the season, and are described as continuous 
growing or fruiting branches. As the fruiting period is 
limited by the length of the growing season, it is desirable 
to select seed from plants that begin to fruit early, fruit 
rapidly and continuously. Such plants produce larger 
crops than stalks with opposite characters. The method 
of selecting high yielding strains is similar to the plan of 
improving corn by the ear-to-row test. 

496. The Size of the Bolls, and the character of the 
opened burrs are closely associated with the earliness of 
maturity, difficulty of picking, and resistance to weather 
damage or "storm proof" quality. Burrs of large bolls 
are more storm proof than those of small bolls, and they 
are a great advantage in picking, for it is easier to pick a 
pound of cotton when the bolls average 40 to 60 to the 
pound, than in cotton where 120 to 150 are required. 
Each boll has usually 4 to 5 cells in which the locks or 
lint bearing seeds are produced. 

497. Species and Varieties. There are a number of 



338 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



well marked types of cotton in cultivation. The cottons 
cultivated in Egypt, India, China, and Central and South 
America are all noticeably different from the American 
upland cotton. The upland varieties are adapted to a 
wide range of conditions, producing a fiber J/g to Iys 




Fig. 212. Cotton stalk with vigorous vegetative branches and short determinate 
fruiting branches. Type of late slow fruiting stalks. 



inches long. The long staple varieties having fibers 13<£ 
to 13^ inches long are successful only on rich soil in humid 
regions. Sea Island Cotton, which is readily distinguished 
by its yellow blossoms, came originally from the West 
Indies. It has silky fibers 13^ to 2 inches long and is 
successfully cultivated in just a few localities near the 
coast in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. Besides 



Cotton 



339 



the American types a form of Egyptian cotton is grown 
to a limited extent in California and Arizona. 

498. Cultivation. Bearing in mind the continuous 
growing habit of the cotton plant, and the relation of this 




Fig. 213. Cotton stalk with vigorous fruiting branches and one slow growing 
vegetative branch. Type of early, rapid continuous fruiting stalk. Note that 
the first fruiting branches are low and continuous fruiting. 



to fruiting, it is plain that the first consideration should 
be to provide the conditions that make growth continuous 
and normal throughout the growing season. Aside from the 
natural richness of the soil, the regularity of the supply 
of moisture is most important. (^ 105). While cotton 
is classed as a drouth resisting crop, it is well to remember 



340 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

that a liberal amount of moisture is essential for con- 
tinuous fruiting and therefore for large yields. 

499. The Light Relation of the fruiting branches is 
probably the second most important feature to be con- 
sidered in caring for a cotton crop. Cotton plants do 
best in warm, sunshiny weather. The normal healthy 
growth of the fruiting branches is especially important. 
Plants should never be so thick that the leaves on these 
branches shade each other very much. On upland or 
poor land where cotton stalks grow only 18 to 24 inches 
high, the plants may be quite close together, 10 to 18 
inches in the drill, and not injuriously shade each other. 
On heavy bottom or other lands, greater space between 
plants should be given in order to allow the light to reach 
the lower fruiting branches. It may be noted that the 
rule for spacing cotton according to the richness of the 
land is the opposite of that for corn. Why? (^ 149-466). 

500. Shedding of Blossoms. Cotton yields are often 
reduced by the falling off of many blooms and young 
bolls, leaving the branches unfruitful. This is not well 
understood, but it is probably influenced by irregularity 
in the moisture supply due to dry weather, hot winds, or 
showers. Shedding may be serious either when growth 
is very rapid or very slow. Sometimes shedding is 
attributed to improper fertilization of the flower by the 
pollen, sometimes to poor nourishing of the blooms, either 
from rapid growth or dry weather. (See ^ 158-160). 
The time consumed from the beginning of the bud to the 
opening of the flowers is usually about 3 to 4 weeks. (See 
Fig. 85). The time from the opening of the flower to 
the maturity and opening of the boll is 30 to 50 days. 
When the flowers open, usually about sunrise, they are 
creamy white in upland cotton and yellow in Sea Island 



Cotton 341 

cotton. They turn pink, through the day and close towards 
nightfall. The flowers are normally self fertilized, though 
considerable cross fertilization is brought about by the 
visits of insects, humming birds, etc. 

501. Preparing Land for Cotton. Cotton farmers are 
not agreed as to' the comparative advantages of flat 
breaking, listing, or double listing in preparing land for 
a cotton crop. Deep fall breaking of cotton land is very 
desirable, but is often prevented by delays in picking the 
previous crop. This condition can be partially avoided 
by rotating cotton with small grains, cow peas, peanuts, 
or corn, but unfortunately much land is planted to cotton 
from year to year. 

502. Seedage. Seed are often planted on "the level" 
on harrowed land. In very dry windy sections, the seed 
are put in slight lists, while in moist sections subject to 
excessive rains, the seed is planted on slightly raised beds. 
Formerly it was the practice to sow cotton seed by hand 
in drills, using 2 to 3 bushels per acre. Now, owing to the 
regularity of dropping and covering by machine planters, 
only a fourth to a half bushel of seed is used to plant 
an acre. This thinner seeding is not only best for the 
young seedlings, but greatly reduces the expense of subse- 
quent thinning. 

503. Fertilizing Cotton. Lint cotton makes an ex- 
ceedingly light draft on the necessary mineral food ele- 
ments stored in the soil. (Fig. 45). The seed, however, 
draw more heavily than any other field crop on the supply 
of nitrogen, phosphates, and potash. It is probable 
that the very general habit of selling the cotton seed off 
the farm is doing more to exhaust the natural fertility of 
southern farms than even the washing or leaching of the 
soil. The soils of the older Southern States were once 



342 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

rich but must now receive regular applications of fertilizers 
containing phosphates, nitrogen, and often potash, in 
order to produce reasonably good crops. Cotton is a 
"clean cultivated" crop, and returns but little organic 
matter to the soil. Barnyard manure is always beneficial, 
but is not abundant in cotton growing countries because 
the stock are not kept in barns as they are in the. colder 
sections. 

504. Harvesting and Ginning. The cotton as it is 
picked from the stalks in the field is called seed cotton. 
It is picked by hand and hauled to gins in lots of 1200 to 
1700 pounds, — sufficient to give a bale of about 500 
pounds of lint. Machines have been invented that 
successfully harvest cotton, but have not yet come into 
general use. The gins separate the lint from the seed. 
The proportion of lint to seed cotton is usually about 33 
percent, varying from 28 to 42 percent lint in upland 
cotton, and only 20 to 30 percent in Sea Island cotton. 
As seed are worth only about one cent a pound, and the 
lint 10 to 15 cents and upwards, it is plainly evident that 
high percent of lint is a valuable quality. After ginning, 
the lint is pressed into rectangular bales, wrapped in 
coarse burlap or bagging, and tied with steel ties. In 
this condition it is usually sold by the farmer in local 
markets to cotton dealers who have the bales compressed 
and shipped to mills or cotton merchants. The ''round 
bale" pressing, while seemingly more desirable than the 
usual form, is not largely used. 

505. Cotton Seed Products. Cotton seed were former- 
ly discarded, because, like the tomato, they were thought 
to be poisonous. To-da}', however, cotton seed products 
are staples oa the world's markets. Cotton seed meai 
is very rich in protein and is exported in large quantities 



Cotton 



343 



to European countries for feeding and fertilizing purposes, 
when perhaps it should be similarly used in the south to 
keep up the fertility of her own fields. (See analysis in 
appendix.) 

506. In recent years cottoa seed meal is used in making 
bread and cakes. It is mixed with wheat flour to secure 
leavening quality. The general use of cotton seed flour 
in bread making is to be en- 
couraged, not only because it 
is cheaper, but because it is 
nearly 5 times richer in protein, 
and therefore more nourishing 
than wheat flour. (See *[[ 335.) 
The hulls have a low feeding 
value, but are largely used as 
a roughage for all kinds of 
stock. Cotton seed oil is 
valuable for shortening in 
breadmaking, being about one 
third more efficient, and 
usually much cheaper than 
lard, or lard compounds. It is 
now largely used as a salad oil in place of olive oil. The low 
grade oils are used in making soaps and washing powders. 

507. Mexican Boll Weevil. The cotton root rot 
fungus, (^ 224), the boll worm, and other important 
cotton diseases mentioned in chapter 23, have been known 
for many years. Another serious insect pest of cotton 
is the Mexican Boll Weevil. (Fig. 104.) In 1904, it was 
established that the Texas cotton crop had been reduced 
to nearly half by the ravages of the boll weevil. This 
damage represented many millions of dollars, and for a 
time the insect seemed to threaten the future of the cotton 




Late Fall boll showing how 
weevils hide between boll and 
involucre or "square." 



344 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



industry. The first public boll weevil convention was 
held at Victoria, Texas, in 1895, and in 1903 the Texas 
Legislature offered a reward of $50,000 for the discovery 
of a remedy for the boll weevil. Later, several important 
conventions were held in Dallas, Texas, and Shreveport 
and New Orleans, La. The Federal and State govern- 
ments made large appropriations, and a corps of entomol- 



L,-.- -■ -^ r" 



L : -/^ --'.;/- 



/-'^"-r:'Dfe 



"^*y [ 




Map showing spread of Mexican 
( (itton weevil over cotton growing 
area of United States, 1892-1912. 




? 



Fig. 215. Cotton growing area of the United States exclusive of Arizona and 
California, with lines in heavier shaded portion showing spread of Mexican 
cotton weevil. — After W. D. Hunter, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 

ogists and cotton specialists began investigations and the 
result was the present satisfactory means of control. 

508. The Spread of the Boll Weevil. Figure 215 shows 
that the advance of the boll weevil has been northward 
and eastward, into the humid regions, rather than west- 
ward. There is no doubt that the weevil will continue to 
advance rapidly eastward, but will move slower toward the 
north, owing to the climatic obstacles that the weevil will 
have to overcome. The dry summer and cold winters of 
1910-1912 reduced somewhat the northward advance as 



Cotton 



345 



the map shows. The dry weather, cold winters, and open 
nature of the West seem to limit the westward movement. 
509. Life History. The adult insects leave their win- 
ter shelter early in the spring and deposit eggs in the 




Fig. 216. Mexican Cotton Weevil ,B.ap- 
pearance of normal square or flower with 
involucre; A, "Flared" square following 
deposit of egg in unopened bud ; C, Part 
of flower-bud removed to show larva. 
After Dr. W. D. Hunter. 



flower-buds. When the egg 
is thrust into the flower- 
bud ("stung" as it is some- 
times improperly called), the 
"square" or involucre is soon 
"flared," as shown in Fig. 
216, and shortly drops to the ground. In about 25 or 30 
days from the laying of the egg, the mature weevils emerge 
from the fallen flower-buds and start a new generation. 
Thus a few weevils, starting early in the season, may, if 



346 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



conditions are favorable, produce enough weevils to destroy 
a field of cotton. The adult weevils hibernate in winter 
in unopened bolls or under any kind of trash that may be 
available, especially in the leaves of nearby woods. During 
the following spring, they begin to emerge in considerable 
numbers after the first few weeks of warm weather. They 
feed on the tender portions of the young cotton. 

510. By using improved, early, rapid fruiting varieties 
of cotton, and cultural methods that favor the same re- 
sults, early planting, wide rows, frequent tillage, gathering 
fallen squares, and other measures, — a fair yield of cotton 
may be secured in the presence of the weevil. More than 
thirty species of birds are known to use the boll weevil as 
food. Ants, parasitic wasps, and flies, birds, snakes, and 
climatic agencies assist man in his fight to keep this pest 
under control. Dry summer weather and prolonged cold 
winters greatly retard the increase of weevils. 




Fig. 217. Day and night position of leaves of cotton plants. No. 1. Expanded in 
bright sunlight ready to receive full benefit of the sun's rays. No. 2. Night 
position supposed to be an adaptation to reduce evaporation of moisture and 
radiation of heat. From photographs of same plant from the same position. 



CHAPTER XLVII 
VEGETABLE GARDENING 

511. Some vegetables and fruits should be grown 
"just for home use" if only a back yard is available. 
To produce an abundance of vegetables requires but a 
small plot of ground and little labor. Not much space is 
required for even berries and orchard fruits. They giv6 
a degree of satisfaction and refinement to home life that 
money cannot buy. Except for the occasional plowing 
and spading, the home garden work may be cared for 
by the women folk, who may thus bring food to the family 
table and strength, and buoyancy of spirit to themselves. 

512. The First Essential for Gardening is a rich, 
warm, sandy loam soil. If opportunity allows, preference 
should be given to southern exposures. Where excellence 




Fig. 218. " When youz thump 'em and (le> z goes ' kerplunk ' deyz ripe.' 
Courtesy Department of Horticulture, Purdue University. 

(347) 



348 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



in the individual plants and fruits is especially important, 
as -it is in vegetables, particular attention should be given 
to the selection and improvement of the soil. Early 
maturity, large size, succulence, and tenderness are 
desirable qualities which are associated with rapid 
growth. This comes when the land is kept in good 
tilth (^ 75) and well supplied with humus. Sandy loamy 




Fig. 219. Tomatoes in a cold-frame ready to transplant. Plants should be gradu- 
ally hardened off before transplanting, and just before moving should be 
thoroughly watered. 

Courtesy Department of Horticulture, Purdue University. 

soils are preferred for gardens because they warm up early 
in the spring and are easy to keep in good tilth. How- 
ever, they are not absolutely essential for good gardens. 
Whatever the nature of the soil may be, it should receive 
heavy applications of manure, be plowed deep and kept 
clear of weeds by frequent surface cultivation. 

513. Forcing. Forcing is a term given to the 
growing of plants under artificial heat in order to secure 



Vegetable Giirdening 349 

early vegetables or flowers. We often grow them slightly 
beyond their seedling stage under forcing conditions, 
using hot beds, cold frames (^ 36), in-door window boxes, 
or in garden flats (^ 15) that are kept in-doors in cool 
weather and exposed to sunlight in fair weather. As the 
seedlings grow larger, they may be replanted into small 
pots, cans or boxes affording more space and allowed to 
grow until the season for planting in the open arrives. 

514. Classes of Garden Crops. In studying the 
cultural requirements and use of garden crops, we may 
for convenience divide them into a number of groups 
according to their cultural requirements. In looking for 
an explanation of why some crops thrive in some seasons 
and not in others, or in some localities and not in others, 
it will probably be found in a consideration of their 
moisture and temperature requirements. 

Our mothers classify vegetables according to their use 
and flavors. The following classification will help us to 
group the vegetables according to the similarity of their 
cultural requirements, and will help us in understanding 
and applying the detailed cultural directions given in 
gardener's manuals and to appreciate the inlelligence that 
is sometimes mistaken for skill in the gardener. 

515. Cool Season Vegetables, include plants that 
are not injured by at least light frost. Some are not 
injured by even light freezing temperatures of short 
duration, and will thrive in moderately cool weather. 
Crops belonging to this group may be planted in the open 
early in the season. Some forms, like cabbage, cauli- 
flower, collards, celery, etc., may be grown in the winter or 
fall months in mild climates. We may subdivide this 
group as follows: 

(a) Early Cool Season Vegetables are frost hardy. 



350 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

early planted vegetables that have a short growing 
season and mature before the season for hot weather 
arrives. They do not develop crops of good quality in 
the dry air of summer. They are hardy, however, to 
light frost and may be planted in the open quite early. 
Included in this group are garden cress, kohl-rabi, leaf 
lettuce, radishes, mustard, peas, spinach, and turnips. 

(b) The Late Cool Season Vegetables, like the 
above, are also frost hardy and favored by cool weather 
but require a longer time to mature. They are also easily 
injured by early hot weather. To avoid this possibility, 
it is usual to grow their seedlings by forcing in the late 
winter and to have the plants well started and ready to 
set in the open in early spring. It is a "transplanting 
group" and includes cabbage, head lettuce, and celery. 
They are plants grown largely for their foliage. 

(c) Open Season Early Planted Vegetables require 
a still longer period to mature. They are favored by 
cool moist weather, particularly in their young stages, 
but once established will thrive in warm summer tempera- 
tures. Here belong the potato, beet, carrot, parsnip, 
salsify, onion, and the perennial vegetables, asparagus 
and rhubarb. It will be noticed that they are valued 
because of their fleshy roots, stems or leaf stalks. The 
vegetables in this group are popular because they have 
comparatively few enemies, have a long period of edi- 
bility, and are easy to care for because they endure 
moderate extremes of heat and cold. 

516. Warm Season Vegetables include crops that 
are sensitive to even light frost and do not grow well in 
even cool weather. They are all native of warm climates 
and require summer temperatures for rapid growth, and 
the development of large yields and good quality. We 



Vegetable Gardening 



351 



may divide them into a short and a long season 
group : 

(a) Short Season summer Vegetables are usually 
planted in open ground after the frost and cool night 
season is safely passed. They may be planted in the 
open and still have time to mature in regions having short 
summers. In this group may be mentioned string beans, 
lima beans, sweet corn, cucumbers, muskmelons, water- 
melons, squash, pumpkin, okra, etc. The plants included 
in this group are valued for their fleshy fruits. These 
crops demand warm weather. 

(b) Long Season Summer Vegetables require a long 
season of summer temperatures for full development 
and large yields. In northern climates having short 
summers, it is necessary to start the plants under glass 
considerably in advance of 

the warm season in order 
that they may mature ahead 
of early fall frosts. Their 
seedlings are quite delicate, 
which is another reason for 
growing the early stages 
under forcing conditions. In 
this group we have the 
tomato, egg plant, pepper, 
etc. 

517. What Vegetables 
to Plant. For a home gar- 
den a continuous supply 
and a variety of vegetables 
are desirable. A dozen young 

plants properly cared for Fig. 220. Cabbages are not hard to grow 
rr^ e j.- if the plants are given a good Start and 

may sutnce tor one time, good cultivation. 




352 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



We do not want to be compelled to eat cauliflower merely 
because it is in season, or to attempt to fatten on beans 
when we crave a salad. There are varieties of peas, 
beans, etc., that mature their crop gradually through a 
prolonged period, and are known as "kitchen garden" 
varieties. Others mature their crop in such short periods 
that the harvest is completed in two or three pickings and 
are known as "market varieties." 

517a. Plan a Kitchen Garden. Secure several seed catalogs 
and note carefully the descriptions of the different varieties of lettuce, 
radishes, beans, etc., including all the vegetables you wish to grow. 
Also secure information from local gardeners about the different 
kinds and the usual time elapsing between seeding and harvesting. 

Make a list in column of the varieties you desire to grow, putting 
the earliest planted sorts at the head of the list as follows: 



Kind of 
crops 



Variety 



Usual date 
of planting 



Usual date 
of harvest 



No. of days 

planting to 

harvest 



517b. Classify the plants given in the list mentioned above, 
using the diagram given below. When the hst is made, com- 
pare the cultural requirements of the plants in each group. 





Cool Season Crops 


Warm Season Crops 




Early cool 
season crops 


Late season 
crops 


Open .sea- 
son crops 


Short sea- 
son crops 


Long sea- 
son crops 


Salads 

Succulent fruits. 

Roots 

Vines 

Legumes 

Relishes 

Savory herbs . . 













518. Market or Trucking Gardens. People who 
live in large cities often do not have room for even a 



Vegetable Gardening 



353 



back yard garden. Before the development of rapid 
transporting facilities, cities depended upon small gardens 
in near-by commmiities for their vegetable supplies. 
The old-time market garden, however, that formerly 
occupied a large place in the outskirts of the cities, growing 
a little of all the different kinds of vegetables, has been 
largely succeeded by the specialist growing large acreages 
in celery, cabbage, cauliflower, tomatoes, etc., in localities 
well suited to these crops. The supplies are shipped in 
car lots to large cities, in refrigerator cars when necessary. 
Early strawberries, lettuce, cauliflower, etc., are grown 
in the winter in California, Texas, and Florida, and 
shipped to all parts of the nation in the winter months. 
Later in the season the central states, followed by the 
northern states, may ship strawberries and other fruits 
back to the South. 

519. Radishes and Lettuce. Prepare a bed to grow radishes and 

lettuce. Secure several 
varieties of each from the 
usual sources and follow 
planting directions as 
given on the seed package. 
If the school is not blessed 
with a garden they may be 
planted in the home gar- 
den. Correlate the work 
with these crops with our 
plant and soil studies. 
Use a notebook, making 
dated notes. Measure the 
area jjlanted to each crop, 
if only a foot, and like- 
wise the crop harvested. 

520. Tomatoes re- 
quire a rich soil and 
Fig. 221. Beans come in early and every one „,„„„_, tp.-nnnrqf iirps for 
looks forward to the season's first mess. warm lempuaiures lor 




354 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



rapid growth, especially seedlings. Plant seed in flats about one 
inch apart and transplant to pots or larger flats when second 
or third leaves appear. Much time will be lost if the plants are 
allowed to grow slender from crowding, poor light, or confinement 
in close spaces. Early started tomato and other plants should be 
"hardened off" before transplanting to the open. This is done by 
gradually exposing the plants to the cooler night temperatures and 
being less liberal in supplying water to the pots. 




Fig. 222. Potatoes should be planted deep. On left, planted only two inches 
deep, and as a result some were sunburned. On right, planted four inches deep 
— deep enough for the potatoes to be protected but still easy to dig. Note the 
growth of roots. 

521. Irish Potatoes are grown in every state in the 
Union. In the northern states the crops are stored and 
used through the year. In the South two crops are 
produced. The spring crop is usually rushed to market 
to get the benefit of high prices. The fall crop is usually 
marketed more slowly, a part being saved for seed for 
the spring crop. The potato is a tuber, a thickened stem, 
which, like root crops, shows good results from deep break- 
ing. Sandy loamy soils, rich in humus and plant fiber, 
are especially desirable. In the potato regions of the 
West rotations involving grain and the plowing under of 
the last cutting of alfalfa have proven to be highly profit- 



Vegetable Gardening 



355 



able. Alfalfa turned under in this way is equivalent to 
15 to 20 tons of manure. The seed potato, whether 
quarters or whole potatoes are used, should be deeply 
covered, as the tuber is formed on stems springing from 
the seed potato. Hence, if the potato is planted shallow, 
many of the potatoes in the crop will be so near the 




Fig 223. Germination and growth of corn at 55, 70 and 85 degrees F. 8 days after 
planting. After Prof. J. A. Jeffery, Michigan Agricultural College. 

surface that they will sun scald. (See Fig. 222.) Potatoes 
run out if not selected. At harvest time the potato digger 
should be followed and seed saved from hills producing a 
moderate number of good-sized, smooth potatoes. 

522. Frost and Rainfall Records. Write to the Weather 
Bureau, U. S. Department of Agriculture, for full information as 
to rainfall records and frost records by months made at the Observ- 
atory Station nearest you. Ascertain what month in the year 
has the heaviest average rainfall and what month the lowest. 

523. Test Soil Temperatures in your garden (see 1[ 94). 
With a dairy thermometer note the temperatures at the surface 
and 3. inches below the surface once a week. Compare these with 
the germination temperatures given in H 26. 



CHAPTER XLVIII 
SMALL FRUITS AND ORCHARD FRUITS 

524. Strawberries, blackberries, raspberries, to- 
gether with currants, gooseberries, and a few less familiar 
forms, are classed as small fruits. The first two are 
grown in nearly all parts of the country, while the others 
are successful only in the northern or cooler parts of the 
United States, The berries are easy to grow and popular 
because of their rich acid flavors. Grapes may be classed 
with the small fruits also. 

525. Strawberries are easy to raise and easy to 
propagate. Light sandy soils are generally preferred, 



te 




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1 


1 


m 






■ 


1 


m 










1 


■^.r i 


-"•l-OE-^^pSPS''*®*' ' 


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Fig. 224. Ideal orchard condition. The trees are the only crop on the ground. 

Note the heading of the trees, and the absence of weeds and grass. 
Courtesy Prof. C. G. Woodbury, Department of Horticulture, Purdue University. 

(356) 



Small Fruits and Orchard Fronts 



357 



though some varieties do well on heavy lands. Land 
intended for strawberries should be previously grown in 
some clean cultivated crop. Sometimes, especially in 
the South, the plants are set out in late summer or early 
fall. This gives plants strong enough to bear a heavy 
crop the following spring, if the season be favorable. 
In the North the plants are more usually set out in early 
spring and 
allowed to 
grow through 
the first sum- 
m e r . Any 
flowers that 
come out are 
pinched off 
to keep the 
plants from 
being weak- 
ened by fruit- 
i n g . Very 
strong plants 
are secured 
in this way 
which will 
produce 
heavy crops 
one year from 

planting. It is not advisable to attempt to secure more 
than two crops from the same planting because the plants 
become so thick that they are weak and not so fruitful. 

526. Hills Versus Matted Rows. Where straw- 
berries are planted in small areas in small gardens, it 
is usual to set the plants about 12 to 20 inches apart in 




Fig. 225. A strong fruitful strawberry plant grown by the 
hill system. See colored plate. 

Courtesy Mr. Will B. Munson. 



358 Elementary Principles af Agriculture 

rows 3 feet apart. The runners or stolons put out by 
the plants are pinched off at regular intervals. This 
causes the formation of strong stocks which produce heavy 
crops of large berries. The hill system requires a great 
deal of care. Where large plantings are made the bed 
or matted row plan is followed. The plants are set 
in rows 3 or 4 feet apart. The first runners are cut off 
as in the hill system in order to produce stronger plants. 
The late runners, however, are trained to a bed 12-24 
inches wide and are allowed to root. 

527. Mulching. In the North it is usual to scatter 
a layer of straw three to five inches deep over the straw- 
berry plants late in the fall. This gives protection to 
the plants against the injurious effects of rapid freezing 
and thawing through the winter. In early spring the 
straw is raked into the middles and under the leaves. 
If late frosts are threatened, the plants are covered for 
the night with straw. The straw in the middles acts 
as a mulch to retain moisture. In the lower South the 
plants grow through the winter and the straw is used 
largely as a mulch and for keeping the berries clean. 

528. Selecting Varieties. There are many varieties 
of strawberries differing as to the quality of the fruits, 
time of ripening, and their adaptability to particular 
locations and soil. Some varieties of strawberries produce 
only pistillate flowers {% 171) and will not produce fruit 
unless varieties having stamens are planted near them. 

529. Blackberries, Raspberries and Dewberries are 
closely related and have similar fruiting habits. The 
roots are perennial but the stems grow one season and 
fruit the next. Through the first season the stems grow 
up and produce a number of lateral branches, especially 
if the shoot has bem headed-in in the summer (H 177). 



Small Fruits and Orchard Fruits 



359 



In the following spring these branches bear the flower 
clusters, followed of course by the fruit. These stems, 
or canes, as they are sometimes called, die back after 
the harvest and new canes spring up from the old roots,, 
which in turn bear the fruits in the following season. 
These old canes should be cut out shortly after harvest. 
630. Blackberries are widely cultivated and are 




Fig. 226. Everybody likes berries! — and they are so easy to grow. (Dewberries). 
Courtesy Mr. F. T. Ramsey. 

highly prized for their fruits. Dewberries have trailing 
vines and for this reason are not so popular as the fine 
quality of their fruit would suggest. The raspberries are 
confined largely to the north central and eastern states. 
They are not hardy in the extreme North or very fruitful 
in the South and West. 

531. Gooseberries and Currants are low growing 
hardy shrubs. They are more successful in the north 
central and eastern states and are hot generally grown 



360 



Elementarij Principles of Agriculture 



in the South. They are highly esteemed for their acid 
berries, which are gathered green and used for making 
jelhes or canned and used for pies and sauces as wanted. 

Gooseberries are very 
fruitful in the more 
northern states and 
Canada. 

532. Grapes are 
usually trellised, as in- 
dicated in ^ 189. 
With the exception of 
the European grapes 
so generally grown in 
California, the varie- 
ties of grapes largely 
cultivated in America 
have been produced 
from the several 
native species, mostly 
during the last half 
century. The Euro- 
pean varieties are not 
resistant to the 
phyloxera, a small in- 
sect that attacks the 
roots. 

533. Grapes are easy to grow and succeed in most 
any climate, provided the proper attention be given to 
spraying to prevent damage from the several species 
of fungi, such as black rot (Fig. 92), downy mildew 
(Fig. 90), powdery mildew and anthracnose. The 
preventative is to spray with Bordeaux mixture, 5-5-50, 
at frequent intervals until near the ripening period. 




Fig. 227. Grape vines will boar .in abundance 
of fruifc but they must be sprayed to prevent 
black rot and other fungi. Top, from un- 
sprayed vines; bottom, from sprayed vines. 
Courtesy Mr. Will B. Munson. 



Small Fruits and Orchard Fruits 361 

For the later sprayings ammoniacai copper sulfate is 
used. Infection usually takes place with each rain, 
hence the idea is to always have the leaves, vines, and 
young fruits coated with the Bordeaux mixture. The fre- 
quency of the spraying will therefore depend upon the rains. 

ORCHARD FRUITS 

534. In Locating Orchards consideration should be 
given to the character and slope of the land, and the 
direction of the prevailing winds. If the plantings are 
to be large, with the idea of supplying distant markets, 
transportation facilities should be carefully investigated. 

535. In Laying Out Orchards care should be taken 
to get the trees planted in straight checked rows. After 
the trees are pruned and set out (^ 185-188) it is well 
to observe the trees frequently to note their progress. 
Young trees are sometimes barked by rabbits, or the 
bark becomes sun scalded if they do not grow off readily. 
Protection from rabbits may be given by wrapping 
with paper or thin boards, etc. In apple orchards, 
owing to the spreading growth of the trees, it is usual to 
set them 30 to 40 feet apart. Pears grow more erect, 
and 20 by 20 feet is usually sufficient. The richness of 
the soils and the rainfall affect the size of the trees. 
Pome fruits are naturally slow to come into bearing. 
Apples may produce some fruits during the fourth or 
fifth years from setting out, though it is usually six to 
eight years before heavy crops are produced. Pears 
are slower, requiring six to ten years before heavy fruiting 
commences, depending somewhat upon the variety, soil 
conditions, and care given to the pruning of the trees 
and the cultivation of the land. (See Tf 159-160.) 

536. Young Orchards should be well tilled and 



362 Elementary Pr-inciples of Agriculture 

efforts made to encourage rapid growth in the young 
trees. Other crops in young orchards are permissible 
if due precaution be exercised to see that they do not rob 
the trees of their moisture and light. Tall-growing plants 
like corn should never be planted in orchards. Low- 
growing crops like strawberries, peanuts, beans, and other 
garden crops are sometimes grown in young orchards 
and cause no injury if plenty of space is allowed for the 
trees. Hay or other untilled crops, as well as rank growing 
weeds, are not usual in successful orchards. 

537. Ripening Wood. Orchard trees make their 
largest growth in the spring and early summer season. 
The branches do not grow in length very much in the 
late summer. The natural tendency is to use this period 
for ripening the young wood and storing food in the 
branches for the next spring's growth of stem and fruit 
(^ 159-160). The suggestion therefore naturally arises 
that the treatment of orchards should look carefully to 
conserving the spring moisture supply to the trees, and 
through the summer to protect them from extremes of 
dryness or other conditions that would affect the ripening 
of the branches. Disc harrows and other mulch-making 
implements are much used in tilling orchards. Some- 
times orchards are sodded down, but as a rule this practice 
is not desirable, except on lands subject to washing. 

538. Recognizing Fruit and Leaf Buds. Branches of the 
common fruit trees of the community should be brought into 
school and study given to the butls until all members of the class 
are able to distinguish the leaf buds from the flower buds and to 
see their relation to the season of growth and the age of the branches. 

539. Harvesting and Marketing. Fruits are mar- 
keted in various ways, usually in half-bushel or bushel 
baskets or boxes and sometimes in barrels or even sold 



Small Fruits and Orchard Fruits 363 

in bulk, depending upon the quality of the fruit and the 
tone of the market. Progressive growers invariably use 
attractive boxes for shipping. Before packing for mar- 
keting, all fruits should be carefully graded. Large 
apples mixed with small apples sell at the price of the small 
apples. The varieties should not be mixed in the pack- 
ages. In grading consideration should be given to uni- 
formity of size, color, soundness, and ripeness. In harvest- 
ing and marketing peaches and plums, great care should 
be taken to avoid bruising the fruits. 

540. The Pome Fruits include the apple, pear and 
quince. The apple is the most important fruit of the 
temperate region. The wide variation in the maturing 
periods of the many varieties, the adaptability of the 
fruit to keeping and transportation, and the productive- 
ness and long life of the trees make it the most widely 
known fruit. It is growai commercially in nearly every 
section except in the extreme South. 

541. The Pear is a fruit of great flavor and pro- 
ductiveness but is not so widely cultivated. They are 
not generally grown in the extreme North or upper plains 
region, but are popular in the more southern regions. 
Pears are much growTi in arid regions where irrigation 
conditions occur. The quince is confined to the lake 
region and states farther east. 

542. Apple Trees will need some pruning every 
year. The early pruning is for the purpose of making 
the head form low. If the trees are kept low much expense 
is saved in thinning and harvesting, and the spraying is 
much easier to do. The pruning of old trees will be for 
the purpose of removing dead or diseased limbs and thin- 
ning out the interior limbs to admit light, to encourage 
the formation of fruit spurs on the interior branches. 



364 



Elementary Principles of Agriculture 



543. Spraying. The principal fungus diseases to be 
prevented in the case of the apple are scab, apple blotch, 
bitter rot and black rot. The insects affecting the apple 
most seriously are codling moth (Fig. 101) curculio 
(Fig. 95), San Jose scale (pronounced san ho-sa') (Fig. 100), 
and in some sections the woolly aphis and leaf aphis. 
The combination sprays usually applied are as follows: 




Fig. 228. B. To control apple scab spray with Bordeaux mixture just before the 
ckister buds open. A. The time for effective spraying with arsenate of lead to 
control the codling moth is just after the petals have fallen. 

Courtesy Department of Horticulture, Purdue University. 

1st, Dormant Spray. When the trees are dormant, lime- 
suKm- wash or sokible oils may be used if scale insects are present. 
If serious fungus conditions are threatened, spray with copper 
sulfate solution. (See Fig. 102.) 

2d. Cluster Spray, given just as the cluster buds open, but 
before the blossoms have opened (Fig. 22Sa). Use Bordeaux mixture 
for apple scab, black rot, and if canker worms are threatened add 
two pounds of arsenate of lead to the Bordeaux mixture. 



Small Fruits and Orchard Fruits 



365 



3d. Calyx Spray, given just after the petals have shed and 
while the calyx end of the young fruits is still open and erect. Use 
Bordeaux mixture with 1 to 2 pounds of powdered arsenate of lead 
added for the special control of the codling moth, curcuho and the 
less important insects. For the codling moth, it is especially desir- 
able that the spray be made while the young fruits are open and 
erect. The codling moth usually lays the egg at the calyx end of 
the young fruits and if the spray is present, the young larvae get 
the poison with their first mouthful. 

4th. Later Sprayings are given at intervals of two or three 
weeks depending upon conditions, using Bordeaux mixture to 




Fig. 229. A peach tree four years old that has been headed-in every year. An 
open tree like this that has been regularly headed-in has many small fruiting 
branches on the interior limbs. 

Photo. Prof. W. H. Chandler, University of Missouri. 



366 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

which are added arsenate of lead to control the later broods of the 
codling moth, and the fungus diseases previously mentioned. 

544. The Cultivated Stone Fruits include the peach, 
apricot, nectarine, plum and cherry. The fruits are 
usually well colored, and highly flavored when ripe. 
They are firm up to the full ripening period at which time 
they develop a high content of sugar and become soft. 
They may be gathered when mature, but before ripening, 
and transported long distances, especially in refrigerator 
cars. The ripening process goes on after the fruit is 
gathered. The stone fruits are usually propagated by 
budding and the trees set into the orchard at one year 
froni the bud, in rows 12 to 18 feet apart. The young 
trees are headed back to a short stem 15 to 24 inches from 
the ground. The annual pruning is not a cutting-out pro- 
cess, as in the pome fruits, but a heading-in of the branches 
by cutting off their ends. This makes the branches 
stouter and better able to support the crop of fruits. 
(See II 188.) The curculio and the brown rot (Fig. 91) 
are the most generally serious diseases to stone fruits. 
Spraying with self-boiled, lime-sulfur wash affords pro- 
tection from the brow^i rot, and when combined with 
arsenate of lead, also the curculio. 

545. Frost Injury. The stone fruits are subject to 
winter killing of buds, and even branches in the central 
and northern states. A few warm days will cause early 
blooming, with consequent danger of injury by late frost. 
For this reason the site for peach or plum orchards should 
be preferably located on ridges or elevated flats with steep 
slopes into near-by valleys. In such situations the cool 
air drains off at night, and as a rule trees in such situations 
are later in flowering than they would be in the valleys, 
and hence will oftener escape frost injury. 



APPENDIX A 

BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE 

The following books are recommended for use of teachers for 
reference, and for supplementary reading in school work. The 
more important ones are starred thus.* 

Primarily for Teachers — 

*The Corn Lady, Field. A. Flanagan, Chicago. • 
*The Story of the Soil, Hopkins. Gorham Press, Boston 
Report Country Life Commission. Sturgis & Walton, 

New York. 
The Rural Life Problem, Plunkett. Macmillan Co. 
Farm Boys and Girls, McKeever. Macmillan Co. 
The American Rural School, Foight. Macmillan Co. 
The Story of Cotton. Rand, McNally & Co. 

Plants, Crops and Soils — 

*Cereals in America, Hunt. Orange Judd Co., New York. 

Forage and Fiber Crops, Hunt. Orange Judd Co. 
*Principles of Fruit Growing, Bailey. Macmillan Co. 
*Manual of Gardening, Bailey. Macmillan Co. 
*The Book of Alfalfa, Coburn. Orange Judd Co. 

Alfalfa in America, Wing. Sanders Pub. Co., Chicago. 

Practical Botany, Bergen and Caldwell. Ginn & Co. 
*Disease in Plants, Ward. Macmillan Co. 

Principles of Plant Culture, Goff. University Co-op.. 

Madison, Wis. 
*Irrigation and Drainage, King. Macmillan Co. 

Vegetable Gardening, Watts. Orange Judd Co., New York. 
*Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, Hopkins. Ginn 
& Co. 

First Book of Farming, Goodrich. Doubleday, Page & Co. 
Animal Husbandry — 

The Care of Animals, Mayo. Macmillan Co. 

Feeding of Farm Animals, Jordan. Macmillan Co. 
*Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, Plumb. 
*Profitable Feeding, Smith. 

Swine in America, Coburn. Orange Judd Co. 

Principles of Poultry Culture, Robinson. Ginn & Co 
Miscellaneous — 

*Physics of Agriculture, King. F. H. King, Madison, Wis. 

The Young Farmer, Hunt. Orange Judd Co. 

Farm Machinery, Davidson and Chase. Orange Judd Co 
*Plants and Animals Under Domestication, Darwin. D. 
Appleton Co., New York. 

(367) 



APPENDIX B 



INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 

1. The Governing Principles in the use of insecticides and 
fungicides were given in Chapters 21, 22 and 23. Below, brief 
directions for making the most generally used mixtures are given. 
More detailed information may be secured from your State Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station or the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
or manufacturers of spraying machinery. 

2. Copper Sulfate Solution. Soluble copper salts are very 
poisonous to fungi and algae in even very dilute solution. They 
are only moderately so to higher plants and animals. There is 
no case on record of anyone becoming poisoned from eating fruit 
sprayed with copper salts. Because of its cheapness copper sulfate 
is most generally used for fungicide solutions. When used to spray 
plants in leaf it is necessary to add lime to neutralize the scorching 
acid effect on the leaves and to give the mixture adhesive quahty. 
For spraying dormant trees it is used without the lime, as follows: 

Copper sulfate, (Blue Stone) 3 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

3. Bordeaux Mixture is the most generally used fungicide. 
The standard formula is 4 pounds of copper sulfate, 4 pounds of 
fresh lime and 50 gallons of water, and is usually referred to as the 

4-4-50 formula. The pro- 
portions are varied for 
special purposes, as 3-9- 
50 for peach trees which 
have delicate foliage. 

In preparing, use two 
half-barrels, as shown in 
Fig. 230. The copper sul- 
fate should be pulverized 
and put into a coarse 
burlap sack and sus- 
pended in water until dis- 
Fig. 230. Making Bordeaux mixture. solved. By Using warm 

(368) 




Appendix B 369 

water the dissolving process maj' be hastened. Use wooden tubs for 
the copper sulfate. The fresh lime should be mixed with water in 
another vessel, using only a small amount of water at first, adding 
as the slacking progresses. Add water till a thin batter is formed. 
Stir freely to destroy even small lumps. Add more water and 
strain through a burlap sack. Dilute the milk of lime to about 
25 gallons, and likewise the copper sulfate. Mix by pouring in 
equal quantities of each into a third vessel, as suggested by Fig. 230. 
Success in preparing Bordeaux mixture of uniform quality, 
color, and consistency will depend on the materials and the manner 
of mixing. When properly prepared, it has a sky-blue color. If 
the lime is not fresh, a greenish color sometimes results, which 
indicates that more lime is needed. It is advisable to have an excess 
of lime. When peaches and other plants with delicate foliage are 
to be sprayed, three times as much lime as copper sulfate is used. 

4. Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate Solution is used some- 
times in spraying ornamentals or for the last spraying of grapes, 
when the Bordeaux mixture would be objectionable. 

Copper carbonate 5 ounces 

Strong ammonia (26° Baume') 2 to 3 pints 

Water 50 gallons 

5. Insecticides With Bordeaux Mixture. It is often desirable 
to combine an insecticide with a fungicide in order to obviate the 
necessity of making two sprayings. This is often done when 
internal poisons, like arsenate of lead, Paris Green, London Purple, 
are used. They may be added to the Bordeaux mixture at the rate 
indicated by the formula usual for insecticides. 

6. Lime and Sulfur Preparations are much used to destroy 
scale insects. They act as a mild fungicide also. The preparations 
in common use vary as to the proportions of lime and sulfur. 

7. Fire-Boiled Lime-Sulfur Wash. Use the following: 

Fresh lime 15 to 30 pounds 

Flowers of sulfur 15 pounds 

Water to make 50 gallons 

When the lime is perfectly fresh, the smaller quantity named 
above will answer. To make the preparation, proceed as follows: 
Slake the lime with hot water, adding the water slowly until about 
ten gallons are used. Then add the sifted sulfur and stir until 
thoroughly mixed. Boil this mixture for from torty-five to sixty 



370 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

minutes to thoroughly dissolve the sulfur. The sulfur dissolves 
most easily in a thin, milky solution of lime, and, for this reason, 
no more water is used in dissolving the sulfur than is necessary to 
keep the mixture from becoming pasty When the sulfur is thor- 
oughly dissolved, pass the solution through a strainer and dilute to 
the desired concentration with hot water. The mixture should be 
prepared just as needed, and applied while still warm. 

8. Self-Boiled Lime-Sulfur Wash is a combination of lime 
and sulfur boiled only with the heat of the slaking lime. It is 
sometimes used for spraying peaches as a substitute for Bordeaux 
mixture when the latter is injurious to the foliage. 

Sulfur, free from lumps 10 pounds 

Fresh lime 10 jjounds 

Water 50 gallons 

Place the lime in a barrel, spread to keep the sulfur off the 
bottom of the barrel and add about a gallon of water to start it to 
slaking. Now add the sulfur and enough water to make the 
mixture into a paste, about 3 to 4 gallons. Stir vigorously to 
prevent caking at the bottom. After the violent boiling due to the 
slaking lime is over, dilute freely to stop the boiling; strain to 
remove the coarse particles of lime and add the full quantity of 
water. 

9. Arsenical Insecticides. Formerly London Purple and 
Paris Green were much used for insecticides. These substances 
are heavy and are somewhat troublesome to keep mixed with the 
water, and are likely to injm"e the foliage. In recent years arsenate 
of lead has come into general use and has largely replaced other 
arsenic compounds used for insecticides. It stays in suspension 
longer and adheres better and is less likely to injure the fohage. 

Arsenate of lead 1 to 3 pounds 

Water (or Bordeaux or lime-suKur) 50 gallons 

Arsenate of lead may be purchased in the form of dry powder 
or as a putty-like paste. As there are many grades of arsenate of 
lead on the market some caution should be exercised in making 
purchases. 

10. Kerosene Preparations. Kerosene oil is an external 
irritant and is very effective in killing insects. It can not be applied 
to plants, however, in its crude form, without producing serious 



Appendix B 



371 



injury. Resort is had, therefore, to various substances to dilute 
and carry the oil, such as soap-suds, milk, milk of lime, or even 
water alone, when mixed with the water in forming the spray. 
Kerosene preparations should be apphed to plants with great 
caution. They are very efficient in fighting certain injurious insects, 

but if not properly applied, serious injury to 

the plant may result. 

11. Kerosene Emulsion. Used for scale 
and other sucking insects. Dissolve 3/2-pound 
of hard soap in one gallon of boiling water. 
Then add two gallons of kerosene oil to the 
water and thoroughly mix by pumping the 
entire mixture through a bucket sprayer until 
an emulsion is formed. (Fig. 231.) The bulk 
of the mixture will increase about one half in 
the process and assume the consistency of 
cream. Now dilute to from twenty to thirty 
gallons as desired. 

12. Soluble or Miscible Oils. In recent 
years preparations of emulsions of the common 

They are probably 
not so good as lime-sulfur preparations but 
may be appUed with less annoyance when only a few plants are to be 
sprayed. They are usually sold under proprietary names. All 
that is necessary is to dilute with water and spray as directed. 

13. Dust Applications of Insecticides have not been so uni- 
formly satisfactory as the liquid applications and are little used. 

14. Spraying Domestic Animals with poisons is sometimes 
recommended to kill insects, ticks, and other parasites. Various 
preparations of oils and arsenical preparations are used. London 
Purple, dusted on the perches, nests, and bodies of poultry, is a very 
satisfactory way to destroy mites on poultry. If applied regularly, 
it becomes a preventive. 




Fig. 231. Hand-bucket 
spray pump. A 
longer hose than that 
shown is needed for oils have come into use 
convenient using 



APPENDIX C 

Composition op American Feeding Stuffs 



Green Feeds. 

Corn fodder, whole plant . 

Kaffir corn fodder 

Sorghum fodder 

Kentucky Blue grass 

Johnson grass 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Peanut vines 

Dry Hay and Fodders. 
Corn fodder, entire plant . 
Corn fodder, leaves only. . . 
Com husks from ears .... 

Kaffir corn stover 

Hay from 

Oats 

Timothy 

Prairie grass 

Johnson grass 

Millet 

Mixed grasses 

Red clover 

Alfalfa, minimum 

Alfalfa, maximum 

Alfalfa, average 

Cowpea 

Peanut vines, without nuts 

Oat straw 

Wheat straw 

Roots and Tubers. 

Sweet Potatoes 

Irish potatoes 

Sugar beets 

Turnips 

Carrots 



Pounds per hundred 



73.4 
73.0 
69.4 
65.1 

71.8 
83.6 



42.2 
30.0 
50.9 
19.2 

16.0 

13.2 

7.7 

9.9 

8.8 

15.3 

20.8 

4.6 

16.0 

8.4 

10.7 

7.6 

9.2 

9.6 



71.1 

78.9 
86.7 
90.6 
88.6 



1.5 
2.0 
1.8 

2.8 

2.7 
1.7 



2.7 
5.5 

1.8 
8.0 

6.1 
4.4 
6.4 
5.7 

10.1 
5.5 
6.6 
3.1 

10.4 
7.4 
7.5 

10.8 
5.1 
4.2 



1.0 
1.0 
0.8 
0.8 
1.0 



2.0 
2.3 
1.6 
4.1 

4.8 
2.4 



4.5 
6.0 
2.5 

4.8 

7.4 

5.9 

3.8 

12.8 

11.1 

7.4 

12.4 

10.2 

20.3 

14.3 

16.6 

10.7 

4.0 

3.4 



1.5 
2.1 
1.5 
1.3 
1.1 



6.7 
6.9 



9.1 



7.4 

4.8 



14.3 
21.4 
15.8 
26.8 

27.2 
29.0 
34.8 
29.1 
32.1 
27.2 
21.9 
14.0 
33.0 
25.0 
20.1 
23.6 
37.0 
38.1 



1.3 
0.6 
0.9 
1.2 
1.3 



!2; £ 



15.5 
15.1 
16.8 
17.6 

12.3 
7.1 



34.7 
35.7 
28.3 
30.6 

40.6 
45.0 
45.7 
39.8 
34.8 
42.1 
33.8 
35.1 
53.6 
42.7 
42.2 
42^7 
42.4 
43.4 



24.7 

17.3 

9.9 

5.9 

7.6 



0.9 
0.7 
1.6 
1.3 

1.0 
0.4 



1.6 
1.4 
0.7 
1.6 

2.7 
2.5 
1.5 
2.7 
2.9 
2.5 
4.5 
1.1 
3.8 
2.2 
2.9 
4.6 
2.3 
1.8 



0.4 
0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.4 



(372) 



Appendix C 



373 



APPENDIX C, continued 
Composition of American Feeding Stuffs, continued 



Grains and Seeds. 

Corn, minimum 

Corn, maximum 

Corn, average 

Kaffir corn 

Barley 

Oats 

Sunflower seed 

Cotton-seed, whole 

Cotton seed, hulls 

Cotton-seed meal 

Peanut hulls 

Peanut, kernel only 

Cowpeas 

By-Products of Mills. 

Corncob 

Gem from corn 

Gem meal from corn 

Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings 

Wheat shorts 

Rice bran 

Dairy Products. 

Whole milk 

Skim milk, gravity creaming 

Skim milk, separator 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

By-Prodtjcts, Packery. 

Dried blood 

Meat scraps 

Tankage 



Pounds per hundred 



6.2 

19.4 

10.6 

12.5 

10.9 

11.0 

8.6 

5.8 

11.1 

8.2 

9.0 

7.5 

11.9 



10.7 
10.7 

8.1 
11.9 
12.1 
11.8 

9.7 



87.2 
99.4 
90.6 
91.0 
93.8 



92.0 

78.0 
92.0 



1.0 
2.6 
1.5 
1.3 
2.4 
3.0 
2.6 
2.9 
2.8 
7.8 
3.4 
2.4 
3.4 



1.4 
4.0 
1.3 
5.8 
3.3 
4.6 
10.0 



0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.4 



17.39 



7.5 
11.8 
10.3 
10.9 
12.4 
11.8 
16.3 
14.5 

4.2 
42.3 

6.6 
27.9 
23.5 



2.4 
9.8 
11.1 
15.4 
15.6 
14.9 
12.1 



3.6 
3.3 
3.2 
3.0 
0.6 



87.0 
49.72 
60.0 



0.9 

4.8 

2.2 

1.9 

2.7 

9.5 

29.9 

10.9 

46.3 

5.6 

64.3 

7.0 

3.8 



30.1 
4.1 
9.9 
9.0 
4.6 
7.4 

49.5 



65.9 
75.7 
70.4 
70.5 
69.8 
59.7 
21.4 
17.3 
33.4 
23.6 
15.1 
15.6 
55.7 



54.9 
64.0 
62.5 
53.9 
60.4 
56.8 
49.9 



4.9 
4.7 
5.2 
«4.8 
5.1 



3.1 

7.5 
5.0 
2.9 
1.8 
5.0 

21.2 

15.3 
2.2 

13.1 
1.6 

39.6 
1.7 



0.5 
7.4 
7.1 
4.0 
4.0 
45 
8.8 



3.7 
0.9 
0.3 
05 
0.1 



18.51 
8.0 



APPENDIX D 

Per Cent of Digestible Nutrients in Stock Feeds 



Timothy, green Steers 

Timothy, green Horse 

Timothy, hay, dry 

Mixed liay 

Oat straw 

Oat straw 

Johnson grass, dry. 
Corn fodder, leaves 

Com shucks 

Alfalfa hay 

Corn, unground Horse 

Corn meal Horse 

Corn, unground Swine 

Corn, ground ' Swine 

Corn meal Sheep 

Corn meal Cows 

Oats, unground Horse 

Oats, ground Horse 

Wheat bran Swine 

Wheat bran Sheep 

Wheat bran [ Steers 

Cotton-seed hulls ; Cow 

Cotton-seed hulls Goats 



Cotton-seed meal. . . . 
Cotton-seed meal. . . . 
Cotton seed, raw . . . . 
Cotton seed, roasted 

Potatoes, raw 

Potatoes, boiled 

Sugar beets 

Turnips 



Goat 
Cow 



Digestion coefficients 



% 
63.5 
43.5 
53.4 



50.3 
56.5 
59.8 
72.0 
58.9 
74.4 
88.4 
82.5 
89.5 
89.6 
84.6 
72.4 
75.7 
65.8 
58.7 
67.3 
35.9 
38.6 
65.9 
77.9 
66.1 
55.9 
75.7 
80.1 
94.5 
92.8 



oa 



% 

65.6 
44.1 
54.5 



52.0 
58.3 
63.6 
74.2 
60.7 
75.3 

8314 
91.2 
90.7 

82.8 
74.1 

77.7 

ei'.Q 

68.6 
36.2 
39.8 
69.5 
80.0 
65.8 
56.8 
77.0 
81.2 
98.7 
96.1 



% 
32.2 
34.1 
30.3 



30.5 
26.8 
16.0 
39.5 
26.3 



49.5 

33!i 
29.2 

i7!3 
47.1 
27.1 
20.9 
19.8 
35.0 
43.3 



31.9 
58.6 



a 
2 


h 
V 

g 


If 


% 


% 


% 


48.1 


55.6 


65.7 


21.2 


42.6 


47.3 


45.1 


47.1 


60.4 


48.0 


48.0 


57.0 


38.- 


58.0 


53.0 




57.6 


53.2 


41.4 


65.7 


56.9 


48.4 


67.5 


63.0 


29.5 


79.5 


75.0 


72.0 


46.0 


69.2 


57.8 




88.2 


75.6 




95.7 


68.7 


38.3 


88.8 


86.1 


29.4 


94.2 


76.9 




95.3 


58.3 




87.1 


86.1 


31.1 


79.4 


82.4 


14.4 


86.3 


75.1 


33.0 


65.5 


70.2 


16.1 


67.2 


82.3 


25.1 


74.6 


24.6 


27.4 


40.3 




45.2 


37.4 


86.8 


46.8 


43.8 


89.8 




68.1 


67.8 


75.5 


49.6 


46.9 


65.9 


51.4 


44.7 




90.4 


43.4 




92.1 


91.3 


100.0 


99.7 


89.7 


100.0 


96.5 



% 

53.1 
47.3 
51.9 
50.0 
38.0 
38.0 
38.4 
59.9 
32.5 
51.0 
47.7 
73.1 
45.6 
81.7 
98.1 
91.9 
82.4 
79.9 
71.8 
72.1 
54.7 
80.6 
87.1 
92.4 
89.4 
87.1 
71.7 
13.0 

49.9 

87.5 



(374) 



APPENDIX E 



Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents iw 

Stock Feeds 



Green Feeds. 

Corn fodder, entire 

plant 

Kaffir com fodder . . . . 

Sorghum fodder 

Red clover 

Cowpea vines 

Alfalfa 

Dry Fodders and Hay 

Com stover 

Kaffir corn stover 
Sorghum stover 
Johnson grass. . . 

Red clover 

Cowpea vine hay 
Alfalfa hay .... 
Peanut vine hay 
Wheat straw . . . 

Oat straw 

Hay, mixed grasses 

Grains and Seeds. 
Corn, whole grain . . 

Corn meal 

Kaffir corn 

Oats .•.•■■ 

Wheat, all varieties. 

Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings . . 

Wheat shorts 

Cotton seed 

Cotton-seed meal . . . 
Cotton-seed hulls. . . 



Root Crops. 
Irish potatoes. 

Turnips 

Carrots 

Beets 



20.7 
27.0 
30.6 
29.2 
16.4 
28.2 

59.5 
80.8 

55 " 
84.7 
89.3 
91.6 
60.0 
90.4 
90.8 
87.1 



89.1 
89.1 
87.5 
89.0 
89.5 
88.1 
87.9 
88.2 
89.7 
91.5 
89.5 



21.1 

9.5 

11.4 

13.0 



Digestible nutrients in 
100 pounds 



1.10 

0.87 
0.70 
3.07 
1.68 
3.89 

1.98 

1.82 

*3!24 
7.38 
10.79 
10.58 
6.74 
0.37 
1.20 
5.90 



8.00 

5.78 
9.25 
10.23 
12.20 
12.80 
12.22 
ll!08 
38.10 
0.30 



1.36 
0.81 
0.81 
1.21 



12.08 
13.80 
17.60 
14.82 
8.08 
11.20 

32.16 
41.42 

4i!3i 
38.15 
38.40 
37.33 
31.94 
36.30 
38.64 
40.90 



65.90 

53.58 
48.34 
69.21 
39.20 
53.00 
49.98 
33.13 
16.00 
32.90 



16.43 
6.46 

7.83 
8.84 



0.37 
0.43 
0.20 
0.69 
0.25 
0.41 

0.57 
0.98 

'6!82 
1.81 
1.54 
1.38 
3.03 
0.40 
0.76 
1.20 



4.60 

1.33 

4.18 
1.68 
2.70 
3.40 
3.88 
18.44 
12.60 
1.70 



0.11 
0.22 
0.05 






26.076 
29.101 



36.187 
19.209 
29.798 

67.766 
84.562 

47;577 
92.324 
97.865 
94.936 
80.918 
69.894 
77.310 
93.925 



157.237 

116.022 
124.757 
154.848 
111.138 
136.996 
131.855 
160.047 
152.653 
69.839 



33.089 
13.986 
16.999 
18.904 



Fertilizing consti- 
tuents in 100 
pounds 



0.30 

0.30 
0.54 
0.27 



1.10 



0.54 
2.66 



0.60 
0.46 
1.40 

1.58 

1.05 

2.67 
2.63 



6.90 
0.69 



0.24 
0.19 



0.15 

0.09 
0.15 
0.10 



0.29 



0.15 
0.52 



0.22 
0.28 
0.27 



0.57 



0.09 



2.89 
0.95 



3.00 
0.25 



0.08 
0.09 



0.30 

0.25 
0.40 
0,30 



1.40 



0.40 
1.47 



0.63 
1.77 
1.55 



0.37 



0.48 



1.61 
0.63 



1.50 
1.02 



0.37 
0.34 



(375) 



APPENDIX F 

Standard Feeding Rations 
Approximate requirements of nutrients for a day's feeding 
pounds live weight 



per 1,000 



Oxen — 

At rest in stall . 
At light work . 
At heavy work. 



Dairy cattle, in milk — 

Giving 11 pounds milk a 'day . . . 
Giving 16.5 pounds milk a day. . 
Giving 22 pounds milk a day . . . 
Giving 27.5 pounds milk a day. . 

Cattle, growing age — 

About 150 lbs., 2 to 3 months . 
About 300 lbs., 3 to 6 months . . 
About 500 lbs., 6 to 12 months . 
About 700 lbs., 12 to 18 months 
About 900 lbs., 18 to 24 months 

Sheep — 

Heavy-fleeced breeds 

Ewes, with lambs 

Growing, wool breeds — 

60 to 75 lbs., 4 to 8 months . . . 

80 to 90 lbs., 8 to 15 months . . 
Growing, mutton breeds — 

60 to 80 lbs., 4 to 8 months . . . 

100 to 150 lbs., 8 to 15 months 

Swine — 

Growing, breeding stock — 

50 to 100 lbs., 2 to 5 months . . 

120 to 200 lbs., 5 to 8 months . 

200 to 250 lbs., 8 to 12 months 
Growing, fattening — 

About 50 lbs., 2 to 3 months . . 

About 100 lbs., 3 to 5 months . 

About 150 lbs., 5 to 6 months . 

About 200 lbs., 6 to 8 months . 

About 275 lbs., 9 to 12 months 



o 

Is 
S 


Digestible nutrients 


0) 

3 

> 
S 


c 
■53 

S 

fin 


1 0) 

|i 


d 
fe 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Calories 


18 
22 

28 


0.7 
1.4 

2.8 


8.0 
10.0 
13.0 


0.1 
0.3 
0.8 


16,600 
22,500 
32,755 


25 


1.6 


10.0 


0.3 


22,850 


27 


2.0 


11.0 


0.4 


25,850 


29 
32 


2.5 
3.3 


13.0 
13.0 


0.5 
0.8 


30,950 
33,700 


23 
24 


4.0 
3.0 


13.0 
12.0 


2.0 
1.0 


40,050 
33,600 


27 


2.0 


12.5 


0.5 


29,100 


26 
26 


1.8 
1.5 


12.5 
12.0 


0.4 
0.3 


28,300 
26,350 


23 


1.5 


12.0 


0.3 


26,400 


25 


2.9 


15.0 


0.5 


35,400 


25 


3.2 


14.0 


0.7 


35,500 


23 


2.0 


11.3 


0.4 


26,000 


26 


4.0 


15.0 


0.7 


38,000 


23 


2.2 


13.0 


0.5 


30,000 


40 


6.5 


25.5 


0.9 


60,000 


30 


3.8 


20.0 


0.4 


45,000 


26 


3.0 


17.0 


0.2 


35,000 


44 


7.6 


28.0 


1.0 


70,000 


35 


5.0 


23.0 


0.8 


55,650 


33 
30 


4.3 
3.6 


22.3 
20.5 


0.6 
0.4 


52,000 
46,500 


26 


3.0 


18.3 


0.3 


40,900 



(376) 



APPENDIX G 

Standard Feeding Rations 



OTAJNUAKU ril^JUUliNU rtATIONS 

Approximate requirements of nutrients per day per 



head 









Digestible nutrients 


3 


















IS 


d 
2 


si 
11 


^ 
^ 


> 


'■3.2 
J5 




Months 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Calories 




Growing cattle 


2-3 


150 


0.60 


2.10 


0.300 


6,288 


1:4.6 




3-6 


300 


1.00 


4.10 


0.300 


10,752 


1:4.7 




6-12 


500 


1.30 


6.80 


0.300 


16,332 


1:5.3 




12-18 


700 


1.40 


9.10 


0.280 


30,712 


1:6.8 




18-24 


850 


1.40 


10.30 


0.260 


22,859 


1:7.7 


Growing sheep 


5-6 


56 


0.18 


0.87 


0.045 


2,143 


1:5.4 




6-8 


67 


0.17 


0.85 


0.040 


2,066 


1:5.4 




8-11 


75 


0.16 


0.85 


0.037 


2,035 


1:6.0 




11-15 


82 


0.14 


0.89 


.032 


2,050 


1:7.0 




15-20 


85 


0.12 


0.88 


0.025 


1,956 


1:8.0 


Growing fat swine .... 


2-3 


50 


0.38 


1.50 


3,497 


1:4.0 




3-5 


100 


0.50 


2.50 


5,580 


1:5.0 




5-6 


125 


0.54 


2.96 


6,510 


1:5.5 




6-8 


170 


0.58 


3.47 


7,533 


1:6.0 




8-12 


250 


0.62 


4.05 


8,686 


1:6.3 




Fig. 232. Mean annual rainfall of the United States. (U. S. Weather Bureau.) 

(377) 



APPENDIX H 

Annual Rainfall in the United States 
Precipitation (rain, snow, etc.) for the years given 



STATIONS 


1898 


1899 


1900 


1901 


1902 


1903 1904 


1905 


1906 


1907 


Aver- 
age 


Ft. Smith, Ark 

Little Rock, Ark 

Texarkana, Ark 


51.1 
49.5 
44.1 
28.1 


40.2 
41.3 
30.0 
31.9 


39.0 
43.5 

54.6 


22.7 
36.8 
33.1 
19.5 
37.9 
24.4 
8.7 


35.1 
54.0 


35.4 
40.5 


31.4 
40.1 
44.5 
37.9 
40.3 
21.3 
11.3 
28.0 
14.2 
14.0 
21.0 
47.7 
33.7 
41.6 
43.7 
42.5 
34.3 
33.1 
37.8 
40.8 
41.5 
39.6 
26.1 
20.2 
7.5 
37.7 
13.9 
10.2 
24.7 
16.3 
24.1 
32.5 
30.3 
20.1 
39.5 


42.5 
56.0 
76.7 
35.8 
62.7 
32.3 
17.8 
58.9 
17.2 
17.7 
21.0 
42.5 
38.5 
60.5 
80.0 
55.8 
50.8 
42.5 
38.4 
50.6 
44.5 
32.1 
35.3 

id.i 

34.3 
16.7 
22.9 
16.2 
14.2 
40.1 
51.8 
50.1 

48.8 


42.5 

47.0 


35.6 
50.5 


37.5 
45.9 
45.7 
32.8 
Fin 1 


Austin, Tex 

Beaumont, Tex .... 


32.8 
63.6 
23.1 
10.1 
46.8 
13.3 
13.3 
19.6 
40.5 
38.4 
47.3 
41.6 
50.3 
54.4 
43.9 
49.3 
46.6 
47.0 
33.9 
37.5 
23.2 
10.0 
45.8 
19.2 
13.3 
19.2 
11.4 
47.6 
46.4 
46.8 


36.2 

20.3 
11.6 
32.6 
9.8 
9.5 
20.6 
39.2 
33.8 
38.0 
57.2 
36.1 
50.5 
48.6 
47.4 
43.5 
48.6 
41.9 
28.0 
21.9 
11.3 
34.5 
16.5 
14.1 
18.3 
14.6 
26.8 
43.8 
18.7 
19.3 
46.1 


21.5 
39.4 
24.9 
15.0 
47.8 
16.6 
16.8 
27.1 
32.8 
35.5 
51.7 
41.6 
54.3 
64.7 
53.6 
46.8 
52.9 
41.8 
40.7 
30.8 
17.7 
14.2 
36.6 
17.6 
25.8 
26.3 
21.3 
43.4 
43.5 
38.8 
39 9 


30.0 
56.7 


Amarillo, Tex 

El Paso, Tex 


22.5 
6.1 


27.4 
7.3 


24.4 
7.9 


18.6[ 23.9 
8.4 in. 2 


Sherman, Tex 


Vs'.i 

11.8 
20.9 
37.6 
41.4 
51.6 
66.3 
41.5 
54.6 
39.4 
48.5 
44.6 
45.2 
37.5 
35.1 

V2.7 
29.1 
17.6 
17.4 
22.5 
19.2 
38.9 


42.8 


Santa Fe, N. Mex . . . 

Denver, Colo 

Garden City, Kans. . . 
Kansas City, Mo .... 

St. Louis, Mo 

Vicksburg, Miss 

New Orleans, La .... 

Memphis, Tenn 

Birmingham, Ala. . . . 
Atlanta, Ga 


12.9 
13.0 
28.7 
50.2 
49.2 
55.6 
49.0 
48.6 
46.5 
50.5 
41.6 
37.7 
45.1 
49.8 
33.7 
16.3 
17.4 
29.3 
13.1 
5.7 
9.3 
16.1 
33.7 


10.0 
9.3 
20.6 
32.5 
34.6 
47.2 
31.0 
39.0 
48.5 
42.4 
43.3 
44.0 
42.0 
34.7 
26.4 
21.2 
11.8 
37.1 
20.1 
10.1 
23.2 
17.5 
36.2 


15.9 
15.3 
19.3 
35.8 
29.5 
53.3 
56.3 
47.4 
76.2 
58.8 
37.7 
41.2 
41.8 
44.0 
28.6 
25.5 
11.6 
36.3 
18.7 
12.5 
15.3 
11.5 
36.1 


17.4 
9.1 
18.3 
24.7 
24.8 
57.5 
57.7 
34.6 
61.6 
59.7 
42.0 
41.7 
47.0 
48.7 
24.5 
25.7 
14.7 
30.1 
16.0 
12.0 
19.7 
16.0 
23.4 


14.2 
13.0 
21.7 
38.3 
35.9 
50.4 
52.4 
45.0 
54.2 
47.3 


Richmond, Va 

Washington, D. C 

New York, N. Y 

Boston, Mass 


43.3 

44.4 
44.4 
40.3 
30 6 


Fargo, N. D 


9.9. 6 


Helena, Mont 

Seattle, Wash 

Spokane, Wash 

San Bernardino, Cal . 
San Francisco, Cal. . . 
Salt Lake City, Utah 

Ardmore, Okla 

Durant Okla 


12.1 
35.1 
16.9 
14.4 
19.4 
15.8 
36.4 
43 6 


Ft. Sill, Okla 

Mangum, Okla 

McAlester, Okla 


37.3 
30.9 
47.3 


46.5 


36.5 


16.1 


31.6 
?4 4 


45.4 


33.7 


31.6 


53.2 


38.9 




42.7 



(37S) 



APPENDIX I 

GLOSSARY 

Abdomen. That part of an animal's body containing the digestive 

organs; the part of an insect Iving behind the thorax. 
Acid. A sour substance, such as vinegar, lemon juice, etc. 
Esthetic. Appealing to the faculties of taste, as in form, color, etc. 
Agriculture. Farming. 

Agronomy. Pertaining to or about field crops. 
Air -dry. Dried in air at ordinary temperatures. 
Albumin. A substance found in plants and animals, rich in nitrogen. 

The white of an egg is a good example. 
Alga. A green plant of simple structure, such as pond scum. 
Ameliorate. To improve; make better. 
Amendment. Substances which improve the productiveness of soils 

without being used directly as plant foods. 
Ammonia. A compound containing nitrogen readily converted into 

plant food. 
Animal Husbandry. Raising and caring for animals. 
Annual. A plant that bears seed during the first year of its existence 

and then dies. 
Anther. The part of a stamen that bears the pollen. 
Antiseptic. Substances which kill germs or microbes. 
Art. The skillful and systematic arrangement or adaptation of 

means for the attainment of some end. 
Ash. The mineral substance left when plant or animal substances 

are burned. 
Assimilation. The absorption of digested nutrients into the body 

substance. Also sometimes used as synonymous with carbon 

assimilation. 
Atmospheric Nitrogen. Free nitrogen of the air. 
Available. Said of fertilizing mineral nutrients in the soil when they 

are in a condition to be absorbed and used by plants. 
Axils. Angle above the junction of a leaf-stalk with the parent stem. 
Babcock Tester. Instrument used for determining the amount of 

butter-fat in milk. 

(379) 



380 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

Bacteria. A name applied to a class of very small parasitic plants. 

There are many kinds, most of which are beneficial to man. 

Some species are the cause of disease in man and the higher 

animals or plants. 
Biennial. A plant that grows during the first year, and forms seeds, 

and dies the year following, such as turnips, beets. 
Bioplasm. The living substance of cells. See Protoplasm. 
Blight. A diseased condition of plants in which the entire plant 

or some part withers and dries up. 
Bordeaux Mixture. A mixture of lime and copper sulphate (blue- 
stone), used to prevent fungus diseases on plants. It takes its 

name from Bordeaux, France, where it was first used. 
Botany. The science that deals with plants. 
Breeding. Plant-breeding; animal-breeding. The practice of 

selecting out the best individuals for propagation. 
Bud (noun). An undeveloped branch. 
Bud (verb). To insert a bud, as in the practice of budding. 
Bud Variation. Where a bud produces a branch that possesses 

characteristics different from the parent plant. New forms 

originating in this way are called sports. 
Bulb. A stem with thickened leaves overlapping one another, as in 

the onion, Easter lily, etc. 
Calcareous. Limy, or having the properties of lime. 
Calcium. A chemical element giving limestone its distinctive prop- 
erties. 
Callus. The growth of extra tissue over cut or wounded places on 

plants. 
Calyx. The outermost circle of leaves in a flower. 
Cambium. The growing layer of cells lying between the bark and 

the wood. 
Cannon. The shank bone above the fetlock in the fore and hind legs 

of the horse. 
Capillarity. The phenomenon exhibited by the rise of liquids in small 

or hair-like tubes. 
Carbon. The principal chemical element in plants. Charcoal and 

graphite are forms of carbon. 
Carbon Assimilation. The process carried on in the cells of green 

plants in assimilating the carbon of the carbon dioxid of the air. 
Carbon Dioxid. A gas formed whenever substances containing 

carbon are burned. 



Appendix I 381 

Carbon Bisulphide. A chemical compound of carbon and sulphur. 

A heavy inflammable liquid used to kill insects in stored grain . 
Carbohydrate. Compound of carbon with the elements oxygen and 

hydrogen in the same proportion that they occur in water. 

Examples are sugar, starch, wood fiber, etc. They form the 

largest part of plant substance. 
Carnivorous. Feeding on flesh. 
Casein. Milk curd, the most important albuminoid in milk and 

cheese. 
Catch Crop. A crop grown during an interval between the harvest 

of regular crops. 
Cellulose. The principal carbohydrate in wood fibers, such as cotton, 

flax, wood pulp. 
Cereal. The name given to the grasses cultivated for their grain, 

as corn, wheat, kaffir corn. 
Chemistry. The science that deals with the properties of the elements 

and their compounds. 
Chlorophyll. The green coloring-matter to which plants owe their 

characteristic color. 
Cion. See Scion. 
Climatology. The knowledge and science of weather. It includes 

the science of weather (local climate) and meteorology. 
Coming True. Reproducing the variety characters. 
Compost. Rotted organic matter, plant or animal. 
Concentrates. A term used to designate feeding substances that are 

almost wholly digestible, as corn, bran, mill products. 
Contagious. A disease is said to be contagious when it may be 

transmitted from one individual to another. 
Corolla. The second circle of leaf-like parts of a flower. The corolla 

is usually colored. 
Cotyledons. The primary or seed-leaves of an embryo plant. 
Cover Crop. A catch-crop designed to cover the ground during the 

fall, winter or spring to prevent washing. 
Cross. The individual resulting from breeding two varieties together. 
Cross-Pollination. Tlae pollination of a flower by pollen from another 

plant. 
Croup (crop). The top of the hips. 
Cutting, A part of a stem or root put into the soil or other 

medium with the intention that it shall grow and make 

another plant. 



382 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

Dependent Plants. Plants that do not have the power of making 

their own food products; i. e., incapable of carbon assimilation. 
Digestion. The process of converting the insoluble substances of 

foods into soluble materials, preparatory to absorption into 

the blood. 
Drainage. The process by which surplus water is removed from the 

soil, either by ditches, terraces or tiles. 
Ecology. The science which treats of the inter-relationships between 

animals and plants, and their environments. The study of the 

modes and conditions of life of plants and animals, — a very 

important phase of agricultural science. 
Element. An original form of matter. An ultimate form of matter 

which can not be further split up by any known means. 
Emulsion. A more or less permanent and complete mixture of oils 

or fats and water. Fresh milk is an excellent illustration. 
Endosperm. Reserve food in seeds stored outside of the embryo. 
Energy. Power; force. Every movement of, or change of body, 

expends energy. The energy of sunlight may be expressed in 

heat, or other form of energy. 
Ensilage. See Silage. 
Entomology. Science of insects. 

Erosion. Wearing away. Denudation, as of rocks or soils. 
Ether Extract. A term used in feed analyses to describe the substances 

removed by ether — usually oils. 
Evolution. The doctrine that present forms of plants and animals 

are descended from previous forms. A theory of the origin of 

forms of living organisms. 
Farming. The practice of raising crops and animals. 
Farmstead. A farm home or establishment. 
Fecundation. The union of inale and female cells. 
Fermentation. A chemical change produced by bacteria, yeast, 

etc. Example, souring of milk. The decay of any organic 

substance is due to some form of fermentation. 
Fertilization. Used in the same sense as fecundation. Also used to 

designate the act of adding fertilizers. 
Fertilizer. A substance added to the soil to improve its productive- 
ness, as compost. Some fertilizers are known as amendments, 

which see. 
Fetlock. The long-haired cushion on the back side of a horse's leg, 

just above the hoof. 



Appendix I 383 

Fiber. Any fine thread-like substance, as the wood fibers of stems, 
cotton fiber, etc. 

Fibro-vascxxlar Bundle. The bundles of wood fibers and water- 
conducting vessels in the stems and leaves of plants. 

Flocculate. To make granular by the union of fine particles into 
aggregates. 

Floral Envelope. The collective term for the calyx and corolla. 

Fodder. Any coarse dry food for animals. 

Forage. Plants fed to animals in their natural condition; or merely 
dried, i. e., without preparation. 

Formalin. A solution in water of the gas known as formaldehyde. 
It is used to destroy bacteria, fungi, etc. 

Function. The particular use of any organ or part. 

Fungicide. Substances used to kill fungi, as compounds of copper. 

Geology. The science that deals with the formation and properties 
of the earth. 

Germ. See Microbe; bacteria. Also applied to the embryo of seeds, 
as in corn. 

Germinate. To sprout; to grow from a seed or spore. 

Girdle. To make a cut or groove around a tree or branch. 

Glucose. A kind of sugar, very common in plants. The sugar 
from grapes is glucose, but the sugar from cane and beets 
is not. Glucose is formed from starch in the manufacture of 
syrups. 

Gluten. A form of protein found in plants. 

Grafting. The practice of inserting a cion into a plant or root that 
it may grow. 

Growth. The increase in size or substance of a plant or animal. 

Gypsum. Native form of Plaster of Paris; sulphate of lime. 

Herbivorous. Feeding on plants. 

Heredity. The phenomenon noted in the resemblance of offspring 
to parents. 

Hibernating. Passing the winter or dormant season in an inactive 
or torpid state in confined quarters, said of animals. 

Hock. The joint in the hind legs of quadrupeds corresponding to 
the heel of man. 

Horticulture. Pertaining to the growing of fruits, vegetables, flow- 
ers, and other ornamental plants. 

Host. The plant or animal upon which a fungus or insect lives. 



384 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

Humus (or -humous). Decayed or rotten remains of plants and 

animals found in the soil. 
Husbandry. Farming. 
Hybrid. The progeny resulting from the crossing of two kinds of 

plants or animals, either varieties or species. A synonym of 

cross. 
Hydrogen. A chemical element. It is present in water and all living 

substances. 
Hygroscopic. Holding moisture as a film on the surface. 
Hypha (plural, hyphse). The separate threads of the plant body of 

fungi. 
Inoculate. To infect with a disease. 
Inorganic. Matter which has not been elaborated into plant or animal 

substance. 
Insectivorous. Eating insects. 
Insecticide. A poison used to kill insects. 
Internode. The space between two nodes of a stem. 
Inter -tillage. Tillage between plants. 
Kainit. A salt of potash used in making fertilizers. 
Kernel. A single seed, as a grain of corn, wheat, etc. 
Kerosene Emulsion. See Appendix B. 
Larva (plural, larvse). The worm-like stage in the development 

of insects. 
Layer. A part of a plant that has been bent down and covered with 

soil to stimulate the formation of roots. After the roots are 

formed, it is separated from the parent plant. 
Legume. A plant belonging to the same family of plants as the pea, 

bean, alfalfa, clovers, etc. 
Lichen. A kind of fungus plant that grows associated with algae. 

Very common on stones and bark of trees 
Loam. An earthy mi.x;ture of sand and clay, with some organic 

matter. 
Magnesia. A substance containing the chemical element magnesium. 

It is similar to lime. 
Microbe. A general term applied to all plants or animals that are 

so small that they may be seen only by aid of the microscope. 
Mildew. A cobwebby fungus on the surface of diseased or decaying 

things. 
Mold, or Mould. Used in the same way as mildew. Mold occurs only 
on dead substances. Also a soil with much humus. 



Appendix I 385 

Mulch. A loose covering of straw, leaves, or soil, to retard evapora- 
tion from the soil. 

Nitrate. A compound having nitrogen trioxide (NO3) combined with 
a basic mineral substance; a salt of nitric acid, as Sodium nitrate. 

Nitrification. The changing of nitrogen into nitrates. 

Nitrite. A compound in which nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is combined 
with a base. 

Nitrogen. A gaseous chemical element composing 79 per cent of the 
air. It forms a constituent of the more expensive mineral plant- 
foods. A constituent of ammonia, albumen, proteids and all 
living substances. 

Node. The place on a stem where the leaves and branches originate. 

Nutrient. A substance which serves as a food. 

Organic. Of or belonging to living things. Organic matter has been 
formed from simple chemical compounds and exists in nature 
only as formed by animals or plants. 

Osmosis. The movement of a liquid through a membrane. 

Ovary. The part of the pistil that bears the seeds. 

Ovule. The parts inside of the ovary that grow into seeds. 

Ornithology. Science of birds. 

Oxygen. A gaseous element composing about one-fifth of the air. 

Oxidation. Combining with oxygen, as in the rusting of iron, burn- 
ing of wood. 

Parasite. Dependent plants or animals drawing their food from other 
living plants or animals. Compare with Saprophyte. 

Pedigree. A record of one's ancestors. 

Perennial. Plants that live from year to year, as trees. 

Petal. Parts of the corolla of flowers. 

Phloem. That part of a stem through which the reserve food moves. 
In plants with netted veined leaves it is just outside of the 
cambium. 

Phosphate. A salt of phosphoric acid. The bones of animals and the 
shells of oysters are composed of phosphates. 

Photosynthesis. Same as Carbon Assimilation. 

Physiology. The science that treats of the life processes. It treats 
of organs and their uses. 

Pistil. The part of a flower containing the embryo seeds. 

Plumule. The shoot end of an embryo plant. 

Pollination. The act of carrying pollen from anther to stigma. It 
is usually done by the wind or insects. 



386 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 

Pollen. The powdery mass borne by anthers. It is necessary for 

the formation of seeds. 
Potash. A substance containing potassium. 
Predaceous. Living by preying, or pillaging. Said of insects that 

attack and destroy other kinds. 
Protoplasm. The living substance. "The physical basis of life." 
Proteids. Organic substances rich in nitrogen. 
Ration. A daily allowance of food for an animal. 
Rotation (of crops). A systematic order of succession of crops on 

the same land. 
Roughage. Dry, coarse fodders. 
Sap. The watery solutions in plants. 
Saprophyte. Living on dead organic matter. 

Scion. A shoot, sprout or branch taken to graft onto another plant. 
Science. "Systematized common sense." Knowledge gained and 

verified by exact observation and correct thinking. Knowledge 
- deals with simple facts, without reference to inter-relations. 

Art refers to something to be done. Science to something to 

be known and understood. 
Sepals. The segments of the calyx. 

Silage. Green feed cut up and preserved without loss of succulence. 
Silo. A place for keeping silage. 
Smut. A term to designate the fungi that produce the blasting of 

the fruits and leaves of plants, as oat smut. 
Soil. That part of the earth's crust permeated by the roots of plants. 
Soiling. The practice of feeding green plants in the stables. 
Spiracle. Breathing pores of an insect's body. 
Spore. The one-celled reproductive body of the lower plants. 
Sport. A marked variation from the parents that appears suddenly. 
Stamen. The part of a flower bearing the anthers with pollen 
Starch. A carbohydrate found in plants 

Sterilize. To destroy all the germs or spores in or on anything. 
Sterile Plants. Plants that do not set seed. 
Stigma. The part of a pistil that receives the pollen. 
Stover. Dry stalks of corn from which the ears have been harvested. 
Stoma (plural, stomata). The minute openmgs in the epidermis 

of leaves. 
Subsoil. The layer of soil below the surface layer of cultivated soils. 
Superphosphate. Phosphates that have been treated with sulphuric 
acid to render the phosphates soluble. 



Appendix I 



387 



Thorax. The middle part of an insect's body. 

Tillage. The act of preparing the ground to receive the seed and the 

cultivation of the plants. 
Tuber. A thickened underground stem, as an Irish potato. 
Tubercle. A small wart-like growth on the roots of legumes, caused 

by the nitrogen-fixing bacteria. 
Variety. A kind or sort of plant. 
Viable. Capable of germinating. Having life. 
Vigor. Referring to the rapidity of growth, without reference to 

hardiness. 
Vital. Of, or pertaining to living things. 

Water-Table. The line of free or gravitational water in the soil. 
Weathering. The action of moisture, air, frost, upon rocks, etc. 
Weed. A plant where it is not wanted. 
Wilt. Used synonymous with blight. 
Zoology. The science that treats of animals. 




**IiOOK out" 



INDEX 



Numbers refer to paragraph numbers 



Alfalfa. 432. 433 
Apple. 537, 541, 547. 
Absorption by Root-Hairs, 22. 
Absorption by Soils, 99. 
Absorption of Water by Seeds, 24. 
Absorption of Water by Soils, 24. 
Animal Body, Nutrition of, 322. 
Animals, Destroy Insects, 257. 
Animal Husbandry, 258, 261. 
Animals, Shelter for, 347. 

Babcock Test, 351. 

Balanced Rations, Economy of, 335. 

Barley 461. 

Beet Breeds, 268. 

Buds, 249. 

Birds, Beneficial, 251. 

Bn-ds, Feeding Habits, 254, 255. 

Birds, Food of, 250. 

Blackberry, 177, 192, 524, 529. 

Bordeaux Mixture, Appendix B. 

Broom Corn, 488. 

Butter, Judging, 366. 

Callus, Growth of, 59, 64. 

Cambium, 58. 

Carbon Assimilation, 47, 48, 50. 

Carbon Dioxid, 29. 

Capillary Attraction, 71. 

Capillary Water, 100. 

Catch-Crops, 144. 

Caterpillar, 226, 237. 

Cells, 13. 

Cellular Structure, 13. 

Cell- Wall, 8. 

Chickens, Breeds, 314. 

ghili Saltpeter, 121. 
burning, 365. 
Clarification of Milk, 368. 
Clay, 89. 

Climate and Crops, 415. 
Clover, 431, 434. 
Coldframes, 36. 
Composition of Plants, 45. 
Compost, 123. 

Compounds of Elements, 4Cf. 
Concentrated Foods, 339. 
Corn, 439. 
Corn Chapter, 462. 
Cotton Chapter on, 491 
Cover Crops, 107, 144, 431, 434. 
Cowpeas. 436. 
Creaming, 358. 
Cross-Fertilization, 173. 
Cultivation, Effect of, 214, 490, 498, 
500. 



Cultivation of Soil. (See Tilth.) 
Currant, 524, 531. 
Cuttage, 195. 

Dairy Cows, How Valued, 352. 

Dairy Products, Sanitary, 359. 

Dairying, 348. 

Denitrification, 129. 

Dependent Plants, 12. 

Dewberry, 531. 

Digestible Nutrients, Ratio of, 333. 

Digestibility of Feeds, 331. 

Disease, Due to Fungi, 215. 

Disease, Due to Insects, 146. 

Domesticated Plants, 202. 

Drainage, 107. 

Drainage Waters, Plant Food in, 112. 

Drouth, 136. 

Drouth Limit, 102. 

Drouth-Resistant, 55, 481, 494. 

Dry-Land Farming, 97. 

Eggs, Preserving, 313. 

Elements, 39. 

Elements, Essential, 43, 109, 138. 

Elements, in Plants, 41. 

Elements, Non-Essential, 44. 

Environment, 6. 

Epidermis, 47. 

Farm Conditions, Changes in, 398. 

Farm Machinery, 391, 394. 

Farming, 419. 

Feed, Amount of, 338, 479. 

Feeding Rations, Standard, Appen- 
dixes F and G. 

Feeding Stuffs, Composition of. Ap- 
pendix C. 

Feeds, Digestibility of, 331, 487. 

Feeds, Nutrients in, 328. 

Feeds, Preparation of, 342. 

Fertilization of Flowers, 169. 

Fertilizer, Quantity of. 111. 

Fertilizer, 110. 

Fertilizers, Kinds of, 118. 

FertiUzing, 132, 430, 503. 

Fibro-Vascular Bundles, 57. 

Flower-Buds, 156. 

Flower-Buds, Formation of, 158, 159. 

Flower-Buds, To Distinguish, 157, 538. 

Flowers, Names of Parts, 165. 

Flowers, Use of Parts, 167. 

Forcing, 513. 

Forest, Conserving of, 381, 385. 

Frost Records, 522. 

Fungi, 9. 



(388) 



Index 



389 



Fungi, Food of, 8, 9a, 216. 
Fungicides, 219. Appendix B. 
Fungus Diseases, 215, 451, 533, 543. 

Gardens, Individual, 379. 

Garden Plans, 379, 517. 

Germinating Seeds, 38, 441. 

Germination, 15, 20, 27, 34. 

Germination, Effect of Air, 29. 

Germination, Temperature, 26, 27, 28. 

Germination, Time of, 35, 523. 

Girdling, Death by, 60, 61. 

Goats, 306. 

Graftage, 198, 199. 

Grains, 438, 442, 486. 

Grape, 532. 

Grape-Vines, Pruning of, 189. 

Green-Manuring, 131, 449. 

Green Plants, Food of, 11, 12, 48. 

Growth of Flower, 57. 

Growth of Fruits, 170. 

Growth of Root, 57, 67, 82. 

Growth of Stem, 57. 

Guano, 122. 

Hay, 437. 

Hard-Pan, 87. 

Harvesting Machinery, 393. 

Hellriegel, 80. 

Hogs, Types and Breeds, 294. 

Home Grounds, 371. 

Home-Lot Planning, 372. 

Horse, Diagram Showing Pomts, 292. 

Horses, 277. 

Hotbeds, 36, 513. 

Humus, 91. 

Hybridization, 211. 

Hygroscopic Water, 100. 

Hypha;, 216. 

Incubation, 309. 
Insecticides, Appendix B. 
Insects, Injurious, 243-248, 507. 
Insects, Parasitic, 248. 
Insects, Useful, 243-248. 

Kerosene Preparations, Appendix B. 

Landscape, 369. 

Layerage, 194. 

Leaf Development, 149. 

Leaves, Work of, 46. 

Legumes Enrich the Soil, 126, 428. 

Legumes, Tubercles of, 125, 429. 

Lime in Soils, 139. 

Lime-Water, 92. 

Machinery, Farm, 394. 
Machinery, Influence of, 397. 
Manure, Effect of, 115. 
Milk, Care in Keeping, 364. 
Milk, Changes in, 356. 
Milk, Composition of, 354. 
Milk, Flow of, 355. 
Mineral Food, 112. 



Mineral Matter in Soil Waters, 112. 
Mulching, 95, 96, 97, 467. 
Mulching Strawberries, 527. 

Natural Selection, 205. 

Natural Science, 3. 

Nitrogen, Fixation of, 124, 429. 

Nitrogen, Loss from Soil, 130. 

Nitrification, 127. 

Nitrification, Promoting, 128, 467. 

Node, 57, 154. 

Nutrients, Digestibility of, 332. 

Nutrients in Feeds, 328. 

Nutrition of Animal Body, 322. 

Nutritive Substances, 323. 

Oats, 133a, 213a, 457. 
Orchard Fruits, 534. 
Orchard Location, 537. 
Orchard Spraying, 543, 544. 

Palatability of Food, 340. 

Parasites, 216. 

Pasturage, 346. 

Pasteurization, 367. 

Pastures, 420, 427. 

Peach, 544. 

Peanut, 435. 

Perennial, 62. 

Phloem, 57, 60. 

Plant, Soil Relations, 65. 

Plant-Food, How Absorbed, 77. 

Plant-Food, Kinds of, 8. 

Plant-Food, Removed from Soil, 116. 

Plant Substances, 37, 39. 

Plant Substances, Increase of, 46. 

Planting, Depth of, 35. 

Planting Seeds, 32, 33. 

Plants Dry the Soil, 98. 

Plants, Structure of, 13. 

Plants, Variation in, 203. 

Plow, Webster's, 392. 

Plowing, 73, 96, 105, 107, 140. 

Plowing, Time of, 445, 448, 501. 

Pollination, 171, 440. 

Pollination, Importance of, 171, 528. 

Potato, 521. 

Poultry, 307. 

Poultr'v, Care of Young, 320. 

Poultry, Feeding, 311. 

Poultry, Improving, 312. 

Propagation, Methods of, 190-200. 

Propagation of Fungi, 217. 

Protoplasm, 8, 14, 42. 

Proteids in Plants, 17. 

Pruning, 174-178. 

Pruning Orchard Trees, 188. 

Pruning, Reasons for, 179-185, 544. 

Rain, 104, 466. 

Rain, Absorption of, 99, 102. 

Rainfall, Appendix H. 

Raspberry, 529. 

Ratios, Application of, 334. 

Rations, Kinds of, 336. 



390 



Index 



Records of Performance, 256, 474. 
Reserve Food, 17, 37, 38, 160. 
Reserve Food, in Stems, 61, 53". 
Reserve Food, Movement of, 60. 
Reserve Food, Storage of, 64. 
Rice, 459. 
Roads 399 

Roads! When to Build, 402. 
Root Growth, 23, 68, 441, 467. 
Root Growth, 77-80; Amount of, 
Root-Hairs, 21, 22, 76. 
Roots, 48, 61. 
Rotation, 142, 449. 
Rotation, Advantages of, 146. 
Roughage, 339. 
Rye, 461. 

Sand, 88. 

Sand Cultures, 109. 

Sanitary Dairy Products, 359. 

Saprophvte, 216. 

School Gardens, 377, 380. 

School Garden, Laving Out, 378. 

Seed Selection, 213, 414, 442. 

Seed-Testing, 31, 443, 475. 

Seedage, 32, 33, 191, 458, 490, 502. 

Seedlings, of Hybrids, 212. 

Seeds, 15. 

Seeds, Germination, 15, 441. 

Seeds, Growth of, 170. 

Seeds of Corn, 18, 469. 

Seeds of Cotton, 19, 505. 

Seeds, Structure of, 16. 

Seeds, Reserve Food, 17. 

Selecting Animals, 263. 

Selecting Seed, 213, 414, 471, 495. 

Self-Fertilization, 172. 

Sheep and Goats, 302. 

Silage, 355, 479. 

Smut of Grain, 222, 451. 

Soil, Change in, 113. 

Soil Classification, 85, 87, 93c. 

Soil, Humus in, 91, 449. 

Soil, Ideal, 69. 

Soil, Improving, 70, 116. 

Soil Management, 71, 84. 

Soil Moisture, 150, 445. 

Soil Mulch, 95. 

Soil Temperatures, 94. 

Soil Tests, 117, 133. 

Soil, Use to Plants, 66. 

Soils, Chemical Analysis of, 117. 

Soils, Exhaustion of, 117. 

Soils Need Fertilizer, 117. 

Soils, Productiveness of, 134. 

Soils, Rise of Water in, 95b. 

Soils, Fertility of, 134. 

Sorghum, 480. 



Split-log Drag, 411. 

Spraving, 231, 543. 

Spore, 216. 

Sprays, How Used, 220. 

Stems, 56. Growth of, 57. 

Stems, Movement of Food in, 60. 

Stems, Movement of Water in, 60. 

Sterile Plants, 162. 

Stock Feeds, Appendix D and E. 

Stawberry, 527. 

Subsoil, 87. 

Temperature of Air, 153. 

Temperature of Soils, 94, 525. 

Terracing, 107. 

Texture of Soils, 74, 132. 

Thinning Fruit, 183. 

Tillage, Depth of, 81, 448, 449. 

Tillage Tools, 392. 

Tilth, 75, 413. 

Tilth, Means of, 73. 

Tilth of Soil, 70. 

Tools, Tillage, 392. 

Transplanting, 201. 

Transportation, 403, 404. 

Tubercles, 125. 

Turkeys, 319. 

Variation in Plants, 203, 214. 
Variation, Fixation of, 204. 
Variations, How Fixed, 204. 
Variations, How Perpetuated, 208 . 
Variations Not Permanent, 207. 
Variety Defined. 212. 
Vegetable, Classes of, 514 to 516. 

Water, Absorption by Plants, 66. 

Water-Cultures, 109. 

Water in Irrigation, 103. 

Water, in Plants, 51-53. 

Water, in Soil, 89, 160. 

Water, Favorable to Growth, 102 

Water, Lo.ss of, by Plants, 47, 54 ,465. 

Water, Movement in Plants, 57. 

Water, Needed by Crops, 106. 

Water, Needed by Plants, 47, 51, 465, 

457. 
Water, Percolation of, 100. 
Water Storage, 105. 
Water Table, 100. 
Weathering of Soil, 73. 
Weeds, 62, 306, 427. 
Wheat, 133a, 438, 449, 452. 
Windbreaks, 390. 
Woodlot, 388. 
Wool, 303. 
Wounds on Plants, 59. 



JUN 19 \m 



